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Productive  FAKivtiNG 


BY 

KARY  CADMUS  DAVIS,  Ph.D.  (Cornell  Univ.) 

PROFESSOR    OP    AGRONOMT    AND    PRINCIPAL    OF    THE    SHORT    COURSES,    NEW    JERSEY 
COLLEGE   OF    AGRICULTURE    (rUTGERS)  ;   INSTRUCTOR    IN    AGRICULTURE,   UNI- 
VERSITY    OP    VIRGINIA    SUMMER     SCHOOL;   FORMERLY    PROFESSOR    OF 
HORTICULTURE,  WEST   VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY;  PRINCIPAL  DUNN 
COUNTY   (wis.)   SCHOOL  OF  AGRICULTURE;  DEAN  STATE 
•    SCHOOL      OP      AGRICULTURE,     CANTON,     N.     Y.  ; 
CONDUCTOR      MANY       SUMMER      TRAIN- 
ING SCHOOLS;    INSTRUCTOR    IN 
farmers'    INSTITUTES. 


SECOND  EDITION 


PHIIADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    igil 
UY  J.   B.  LIPPINCOTT   COMPANV 


COPYRIGHT,    191 2 
BY  J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


PRINTED   BY  J.   B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

THE  WASHINGTON  SQUARE    PRESS 

PHILADELPHIA,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  intended  to  suit  the  needs  of  rural  schools 
of  all  kinds,  and  graded  village  and  city  schools  chiefly  below 
high-school  rank.  It  is  believed  that  many  high-schools 
wanting  a  less  advanced  course  in  agriculture  than  is  offered 
in  more  difficult  books  will  find  this  text  helpful.  It  is 
hoped  that  farmers  and  others  pursuing  a  short  course,  a 
reading-circle  course,  a  correspondence  course,  or  a  home- 
reading  course  will  find  this  volume  of  value.  Such  persons 
should  read  the  exercises  but  probably  omit  the  trial  of  some 
of  them. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  the  writer  has  been  aided 
very  materially  bj^  a  number  of  people.  The  ever-present 
memory  of  the  boys  and  girls  -vvith  whom  the  writer  has 
associated  as  a  schoolmate  or  as  teacher  in  the  rural  schools 
and  graded  schools  has  been  an  inspiration  and  help  in  pre- 
paring every  lesson  to  be  studied  by  other  such  boys  and 
girls.  The  many  teachers  of  both  rural  and  graded  schools 
who  have  criticized  the  lessons  as  they  have  been  presented 
by  the  writer  have  spurred  him  on  to  do  his  best  in  the  mak- 
ing of  this  book.  It  is  to  such  teachers  and  such  boys  and 
girls  that  this  book  should  be  dedicated,  for  they  have  been 
in  the  writer's  mind  every  moment  of  the  time. 

Special  acknowledgment  is  due  to  a  number  of  persons 
who  have  helped  in  the  preparation  of  the  whole  book  or  of 
special  chapters.  Professor  Dick  J.  Crosby,  Specialist  in 
Agricultural  Education  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  has  read  the  first  manuscript  of  the  whole 
book  and  parts  of  the  second  draft.  His  suggestions  and 
help  have  been  so  valuable  that  his  name  should  go  on  the 
title  page  if  he  would  allow  it.    He  has  read  the  proofs;  and 


4DHiH8 


iv  PREFACE 

through  him  many  photographs  have  been  supplied  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture.  Cuts  made  from  those  photo- 
graphs are  marked  ''A.  E."  in  the  hst  of  illustrations. 

In  like  manner,  Frederick  C.  Minkler,  Professor  of  Ani- 
mal Husbandry  of  the  New  Jersey  College  of  Agriculture, 
has  read  the  manuscript  and  proofs   of   several  chapters 
on  Animal  Production,  Animal  Breeding,  Horses,   Cattle, 
Sheep,  and  Swine.    Other  Professors  of  the  same  institution 
have  read  the  manuscript  and  proofs  of  a  number  of  other 
chapters:  Dr.   Jacob   G.   Lipman,  Director  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station,  the  five  chapters  on  Soils  and 
their  Improvement;  Professor  Harry  R.  Lewis,  Head  of  the 
Poultry  and  Dairy  Departments,  the  chapters  on  Poultry 
Management   and   Cattle   Products;   Dr.   John  B.   Smith, 
State  Entomologist,  the  chapters  on  Insects  and  Bee-keeping; 
Professor   Maurice   A.    Blake,    Head   of   the   Horticulture 
Department,  the  chapter  on  Fruit  Production;  Dr.  Byron 
D.  Halsted,  Botanist  and  Plant  Pathologist,  the  first  chapter 
and  the  chapter  on  Plant  Diseases  and  Spraying;  Walter 
W.  Shute,  Instructor  in  Forage  Crops,  the  chapters  on  Field 
Crops  and  on  Alfalfa;  Arthur  J.  Farley,  of  the  Horticulture 
Department,  the  Sections  on  Spraying  and  the  Tables  of 
Insecticides  and  Fungicides;  Dr.  Myron  T.  Scudder,  Head- 
master of  the  Rutgers  Preparatory  School  and  Professor 
of  the  Science  of  Teaching  in  Rutgers  College,  has  read 
manuscripts  and  proofs  of  the  Introduction  gnd  the  chapter 
on  The  Business  of  Farming.    Mrs.  Kary  C.  Davis  has  read 
and  criticized  the  whole  manuscript  and  corrected  the  proofs. 
She  has  made  nearly  all  of  the  pen-and-ink  drawings  in  the 
book.     To  all  of  these  and  others,  including  many  farmers 
and  teachers  whose  names  do  not  appear,  the  author  is 
greatly  indebted  for  material  aid  and  encouragement. 

Photographs  besides  those  already  mentioned  have  been 
kindly  furnished  by  the  Agronomist  and  the  Dairy  Division 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.     These 


PREFACE  V 

are  marked  under  illustrations :  "An.  I.'^  for  Animal 
Industry,  and  ''PL  I/'  for  Plant  Industry.  Credits  are 
given  with  the  name  of  the  station  to  those  furnished  by 
State  Experiment  Stations:  ''Kans./'  ''W.  Va.,"  ''Wis.," 
"N.  J.,"  "Minn.,"  "Maine,"  "Cornell."  Professors  Harry 
R.  Lewis  and  Maurice  A.  Blake  kindly  supplied  a  number 
of  photographs;  animal  photographs  were  also  given  by  F. 
Warren  Sumner,  of  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  the  White  Wyandotte 
Hen;  Thos.  Wyckoff,  Orchard  Lake,  Mich.,  the  Rambouillet 
Ram;  Cornell  Countryman,  the  Dorsets;  Chas.  Leet,  Mantua, 
Ohio,  Southdown  Ewe;  R.  C.  Parsons,  Grand  Ledge,  Mich., 
Oxford  Ram;  A.  T.  Gamber,  Wakeman,  O.,  American  Merino. 
Cuts  have  been  loaned  by  the  author  and  the  J.  B.  Lippin- 
cott  Co.  from  John  B.  Smith's  "Insect  Friends  and  Ene- 
mies," and  "Economic  Entomology." 

The  author  will  be  glad  to  receive  suggestions  and  cor- 
rections from  teachers  and  others  regarding  any  mistakes 
in  the  book. 


CONTENTS 

Introduction. — The  Teaching  of  Agriculture 

PART  I.— PLANT  PRODUCTION 

I.    Structure  and  Physiology  of  Plants 8 

II.    Plant  Improvement — Good  Seed 22 

III.  Propagation  of  Plants  Without  Seeds 33 

IV.  How  Soils  are  Formed 42 

V.    Kinds  of  Soils — Their  Characteristics 50 

VI.    Soil  Moisture 58 

VII.     Land  Drainage 65 

VIII.    Soil  Improvement 69 

IX.    Systems  of  Cropping 86 

X.     Farm  Crops 95 

XL    Alfalfa 109 

XII.    Cotton  Production 115 

XIIL    Corn  131 

XIV.    Small  Grains 148 

XV.    Potatoes  154 

XVI.    The  Principles  of  Forestry  160 

XVII.    Gardening 173 

XVIII.    Fruit  Production 188 

XIX.    Insects 202 

XX.    Diseases  of  Plants  — Spraying 224 

PART  II.— ANBIAL  PRODUCTION 

XXI.    Improvement  of  Animals 237 

XXIL    Horses 240 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

XXIII.  Cattle   257 

XXIV.  Sheep 271 

XXV.    Swine 278 

XXVI.    Poultry  Management 283 

XXVII.    Bee-keeping 299 

XXVIII.    Feeds  and  Feeding. 305 

PART  III.— ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 
XXIX.    Cattle  Products 322 

PART  IV.— FARM  MANAGEMENT 
XXX.    The  Business  of  Farming 338 

PART  v.— APPENDIX— REFERENCE  TABLES 

I.  Reference  Books 346 

II.  List  of  Experiment  Stations 348 

III.  Insecticides  and  Fungicides .., 350 

IV.  Quantity  of  Seed  per  Acre  and  Legal  Weights 354 

V.  Sample  Pedigree  of  Pure  Bred  Cattle 355 

VI.    Rules 356 

VII.    Fertilizer  Formulas 357 

VIII.    Average  Digestibility  of  Feeds  and  Their  Fertility.  360 

IX.    Feeding  Standards 361 

X.    Average  Composition  of  Farm  Manures 362 

XL    Distances  Apart  for  Planting  Fruit » 362 

XII.  Usual  Distances  Apart  for  Planting  Vegetables...  363 

Index    , 365 


Productive  Farming 


INTRODUCTION 
THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  demand  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  public 
schools  is  growing  stronger  all  the  time.  In  many  States 
of  the  Union  and  several  provinces  of  Canada  the  subject 
has  been  introduced  into  schools  very  generally.  Not  only 
has  the  subject  been  taken  up  in  the  high-schools,  but  also 
in  special  schools  started  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  teaching 
agriculture,  manual  training,  and  domestic  economy. 

This  is  in  response  to  the  verj^  general  demand  for  more 
practical  instruction.  The  feeling  exists  that  the  schools 
have  been  doing  work  too  remote  from  real  life;  and  that 
where  the  work  has  touched  the  life  at  all,  it  has  been  the 
city  side  or  the  commercial  side  rather  than  the  productive 
side  and  the  industrial  side  of  life.  Such  training  tends  to 
lead  all,  or  nearly  all,  young  people  away  from  rather  than 
toward  the  industrial  and  productive  callings.  The  census 
reports  indicate  that  this  tendency  has  aided  in  building 
up  the  cities  and  actually  decreasing  the  population  in  many 
of  the  rural  districts. 

The  interest  in  rural  life  should  be  kept  up  by  the  train- 
ing received  in  country  schools,  and  in  all  schools.  A  proper 
conception  of  the  opportunities  afforded  in  the  country 
should  be  in  the  minds  of  all  young  people — whether  they 
live  in  cities  or  in  the  country.  The  productive  wealth  of 
the  nation  is  from  the  country,  not  from  the  city.  This 
wealth  should  be  used  to  improve  rural  life  rather  than  city 


2  PRODUCTIVE    FARMING 

life.  All  young  people  should  learn  of  the  opportunities  for 
health,  independence,  happiness,  and  wealth  afforded  by 
the  country.  Those  hving  in  the  country  often  fail  to  realize 
their  blessings.  They  rush  in  dangerous  numbers  to  the 
cities,  until  every  legitimate  city  occupation  is  overcrowded. 
Hosts  of  them  are  left  to  seek  livehhoods  by  devices  and 
means  that  are  at  least  not  elevating. 

The  comforts  and  conveniences  enjoyed  by  a  few  in  the 
cities  are  very  alluring  to  the  young  ambitious  mind.  Why 
not  show  that  things  better  than  these  are  in  the  country — 
and  that  many  of  these  same  comforts  may  be  enjoyed  by 
rural  communities. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers. — The  teaching  of  agriculture 
is  most  easily  done  by  taking  up  those  subjects  nearest  at 
hand.  Teach  the  lines  of  agriculture  that  will  be  most  valu- 
able in  your  community.  If  in  a  gardening  section  the  special 
garden  crops  will  be  most  interesting;  in  a  dairy  section 
study  dairy  breeds,  the  testing  of  milk,  the  dairy  products; 
in  the  corn  belt  the  class  will  delight  in  the  study  of  corn 
improvement,  the  testing  of  seed  corn,  and  the  judging  of 
corn  by  score  cards. 

There  are  certain  chapters  in  this  book  which  are  funda- 
mental and  cannot  be  omitted.  For  example.  Chapter  I  is 
necessary  to  the  proper  understanding  of  other  plant  studies. 
However,  there  are  certain  other  chapters  which  may  be 
taken  independently  at  a  time  of  year  which  suits  the  sub- 
ject. The  chapter  on  Forage  Crops  and  perhaps  others  may 
well  be  used  as  reading  lessons  and  then  studied  more  in 
detail  later. 

How  to  Begin. — Enter  heartily  into  the  new  subject 
without  hesitation.  Teach  the  newest  things  in  agriculture. 
It  will  be  easier  for  you  to  teach  these  than  to  teach  the 
topics  more  familiar  to  the  class.  This  is  particularly  so 
if  the  pupils  are  from  farms.  The  field  is  so  broad  no  one 
can  know  it  all.    Teach  the  facts  which  you  know  best  and 


THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE       3 

which  are  newest  to  the  class:  the  making  of  spray  mix- 
tures; the  prevention  of  certain  plant  diseases;  the  raising 
and  use  of  special  crops  which  should  be  grown,  as,  perhaps, 
alfalfa,  or  certain  clovers;  the  green-soiling  methods  of 
feeding;  use  of  catch  crops  and  cover  crops;  the  saving  of 
soil  moisture.  The  best  United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins  will 
help  you  along  these  new^er  lines  and  will  give  you  new  points 
on  the  old  themes.  Why?  It  is  because  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  fifty  or  more  agricultural  experiment 
stations  are  finding  out  new  things  in  agriculture  all  the  time. 

Farmers'  Bulletins. — References  to  United  States  Farm- 
ers' Bulletins  are  given  at  the  close  of  the  chapters.  A  com- 
plete list  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  can  be  had  by  writing  to  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  Besides  those 
listed  at  the  close  of  the  chapters,  there  are  others  that  will 
be  helpful  in  schools.  Write  for  them.  They  are  free  to 
schools. 

Make  pasteboard  holders  for  the  Bulletins.  Put  labels 
on  these  so  that  a  simple  classification  will  be  possible.  Label 
them  similar  to  the  chapters  in  this  book. 

How  to  Use  the  Bulletins. — Teachers  will  find  the  United 
States  Farmers'  Bulletins  very  useful.  Let  us  illustrate.  No. 
113,  on  ''The  Apple  and  how  to  Grow  it,"  shows  clearly  how 
to  graft  fruit  trees.  It  tells  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it. 
The  pictures  are  simple  and  plain.  Most  of  the  Bulletins 
are  well  illustrated  and  plainly  written.  Each  of  these 
Bulletins  has  a  special  use  in  teaching  some  definite  subject. 
Have  advanced  pupils  use  the  Bulletins  as  extra  work,  or 
as  supplementary  reading. 

Time  Saved. — If  the  objection  is  raised  that  there  is  no 
room  in  the  schedule — ^no  time — for  a  new  subject  because 
there  are  already  too  many  subjects  to  teach,  answer  by 
saying  there  is  always  room  for  a  subject  that  will  hold  the 
pupils'  interest.  Such  subjects,  if  practical,  are  the  best  in 
the  school  course. 


4  PRODUCTIVE    FARMING 

Arranging  the  Schedule. — A  ''sliding  schedule"  may  be 
made  to  admit  agriculture  without  reducing  the  recitation 
time  for  other  subjects,  thus:  First  plan — On  Mondays  let 
agriculture  take  the  place  of  the  first  morning  recitation 
period;  on  Tuesdays,  the  second  period;  on  Wednesdays, 
the  third  period,  and  so  on  through  the  week.  Another  plan 
would  be  to  have  agriculture  three  times  a  week,  alternating 
with  some  three  other  subjects, — each  of  them  being  given 
four  times  a  w^eek.  Another  time-saving  plan  to  use  in  the 
smaller  rural  schools  is  to  combine  several  of  the  upper 
classes  into  one  class  when  teaching  a  new  subject  like 
agriculture. 

Correlation. — It  is,  indeed,  a  very  good  plan  to  correlate 
the  work  in  agriculture  with  other  subjects  in  school.  The 
other  subjects  will  be  made  far  more  interesting  to  most  of 
the  pupils  if  agriculture  is  made  the  center  of  interest  around 
which  to  group  these  other  subjects. 

School  English  is  made  more  interesting  by  having  pupils 
read  and  write  and  speak  on  those  themes  which  are  close 
to  human  life.  Language  comes  forth  spontaneously  when 
the  pupils  have  something  real  to  tell  or  to  write  about.  New 
words  in  this  book  or  in  the  Bulletins  should  be  woven  into 
the  spelling  and  language  work. 

A  few  arithmetical  problems  have  been  suggested  in  this 
book.  These  will  serve  to  show  that  much  of  the  arithmetic 
work  of  the  school  can  be  founded  on  agriculture  or  enriched 
by  it. 

One  of  the  best  ways  to  study  local  geography  is  to  study 
the  soils  of  the  neighborhood  (Fig.  1).  Trips  may  be  taken 
by  the  class  to  near-by  places  where  examples  of  erosion  are 
shown,  or  the  action  of  ancient  glaciers,  or  the  cropping 
out  of  ledges  of  sedimentary  rocks.  Study  soil-depths,  soil- 
textures,  and  soil  improvement.  Take  samples  of  soils  and 
subsoils.  The  study  of  the  ways  in  which  soils  are  being 
formed  all  about  the  neighborhood  is  real  geography. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE       5 

All  this  should  be  done  not  solely  for  the  sake  of  agricul- 
ture, but  for  the  sake  of  more  interest  in  other  subjects  when 
the  agricultural  matter  is  introduced.  There  is  as  much  or 
more  cultural  value  in  the  teaching  of  a  practical  subject  as 
in  teaching  any  other  subject  in  the  school  course. 


Fig.  1. — Studying  soils  and  potting  plants.     Graded  school  work  in  Virginia. 

Use  the  Exercises. — The  practical  exercises  offered  in  this 
book  are  simple  and  can  be  performed  by  pupils  themselves 
with  a  Httle  guidance.  Pupils  will  be  willing  to  supply  the 
necessary  articles  in  most  cases.  The  exercises  add  much  to 
the  interest  and  also  to  the  value  of  the  work.  The  work 
should  be  directly  with  things,  handling  them,  reasoning 
from  them.  Use  also  the  exercises  given  in  United  States 
Farmers'  Bulletins  408,  409,  423,  428. 

Suit  the  subject  considered  to  the  season  so  far  as  con- 
venient. Seed  testing  is  a  good  exercise  for  early  spring. 
School  garden  work  will  come  later.  Do  not  fail  to  provide 
window  boxes.  The  pupils  will  do  the  work  gladly,  and  in  the 
spring  season  fill  them  with  germinating  seeds  and  growing 
plants. 

Teachers  will  find  that  agriculture  will  add  a  new  interest 
to  the  whole  school  work.    Exhibits  of  the  school  garden  pro- 


6  PRODUCTIVE    FARMING 

ducts  may  be  made  at  the  school  in  the  fall.  Prizes  may  be 
offered  for  the  best  products  grown  by  the  pupils  in  the  home 
gardens.  Money  to  buy  prizes  may  be  raised  by  charging 
an  admission  fee  when  the  exhibit  is  made.  If  the  exhibit 
is  small,  supplement  it  with  a  suitable  program. 

A  Community  Center. — The  pubHc  affairs  of  the  commu- 
nity should  center  about  the  school  much  of  the  time  during 
the  school  year. 

The  teacher  may  appoint  committees  to  arrange  the 
details  of  many  events  to  be  held  at  the  school  or  at  other 
near-by  places  in  the  name  of  the  school.  Hold  corn  exhibits 
in  the  fall  or  early  winter  and  let  students  and  others  enter 
into  corn-judging  contests,  Apple  shows  and  vegetable 
shows  may  be  held  at  separate  times  or  in  connection  with 
the  corn  show.  Poultry  shows  and  dairy-product  shows  may 
be  possible  in  some  places. 

Premium  lists  should  be  issued  to  the  pupils  to  take  home, 
or  they  may  be  published  in  local  papers.  Award  cards  may 
be  issued  in  lieu  of  premiums;  but  the  merchants  or  neighbors 
may  be  called  upon  to  contribute  suitable  articles  to  be  used 
as  prizes.  Read  Circular  99,  U.  S.  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations,  on  "  Farmers'  Institutes  for  Young  People.'' 

Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs. — The  school  should  be  the  center 
for  the  organization  of  boys'  corn  clubs,  or  alfalfa  clubs,  or 
experimental  clubs.  Girls'  clubs  may  be  organized.  They 
may  follow  nature  study,  or  home  gardening,  or  sewing,  or 
basketry.  Let  the  work  of  all  these  clubs  be  shown  at  the 
school  on  stated  occasions.     Read  Farmers'  Bulletin  385. 

Special  school  exercises  of  an  appropriate  nature  should 
be  given  on  arbor  day,  bird  day,  corn  day,  alfalfa  day,  and 
other  special  days.  Always  have  the  patrons  of  the  school 
present  on  these  occasions.  Make  the  school  building  the 
attractive  center  for  the  people  of  the  community.  The 
newer  lines  of  education  will  connect  with  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity at  every  point. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE      7 

Let  school  holidays  and  perhaps  other  days  be  filled  with 
historical  or  agricultural  or  other  pageants  suitable  to  the 
season;  have  appropriate  contests,  school  games,  and  good 
sports.  Let  there  be  recreational  diversion  for  old  and 
young.  Appoint  committees  to  cooperate  in  preparing  for 
these  occasions. 


PART  I. 
PLANT  PRODUCTION  / 


CHAPTER  I. 
STRUCTURE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS. 

The  plants  produced  in  field  and  garden  form  the  food 
for  man  and  nourishment  for  his  live  stock.  Parts  of  plants 
are  useful  in  the  arts,  as  their  oils  for  paint,  their  fibers  for 
clothing,  and  their  wood  for  buildings  and  fuel. 

The  parts  of  farm  plants  are  broadly  considered  to  be 
made  up  of  (1)  root,  (2)  stem,  (3)  leaf,  (4)  flower,  and  (5) 
seed. 

Roots  of  plants  are  for  three  purposes :  to  hold  the  plant 
in  place  or  prevent  its  blowing  away;  to  take  nourishment 
and  moisture  from  the  soil;  and  to  serve  as  storage  places 
for  plant  food. 

In  growing  into  the  soil  the  tip  of  the  root  forces  its  way 
among  the  soil  particles.  For  this  reason  there  is  a  root  cap 
or  covering  over  the  tip  to  prevent  injury.  The  growth 
takes  place  a  Httle  back  of  the  tip  cap,  or  covering,  at  the 
end  of  the  fine  roots. 

Root=hairs  are  formed  on  the  fibrous  roots  a  little  distance 
from  the  tips.  These  are  of  fine  growth,  giving  a  plush  or 
velvety  surface  to  the  root.  The  surface  of  all  these  fine 
hairs  is  very  thin  and  is  much  greater  in  area  than  the  sur- 
face of  the  roots.  This  allows  moisture  from  the  soil  to  pass 
through  into  the  plant  more  easily. 

Exercise. — To  Show  Root-hairs. — Plant  a  few  kernels 
of  corn  in  moist  sand  or  soil  in  a  bottle  with  wide  mouth 

8 


STRUCTURE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS       9 

Wrap  some  black  or  dark  paper  around  the  body  of  the  bottle 
to  exclude  the  light.  Roots  seek  darkness.  Keep  the  soil 
moist  and  in  a  warm  room  for  a  week  or  so.  The  growth  of 
the  young  roots  will  then  have  reached  the  inside  surface 
of  the  glass.  Notice  their  very  fine,  plush-like  appearance 
(Figs.  2a  and  &).  Notice  also  which  grow  in  length  faster 
during  the  first  two  weeks,  the  roots  or  the  tops  of  the  young 
corn  plants. 


Fig.  2a. — Corn  grown  in  a  bottle  of  soil.  The  dark  paper  around  it  excludes 
the  light,  so  the  roots  may  be  studied  by  removing  the  paper. 

FiQ.  26. — Corn  grown  as  in  Fig.  2a,  showing  fibrous  roots  and  root-hairs  for 
absorbing  moiature. 

Exercise. — Root-hairs  on  Seedlings. — Sprout  some  seeds 
of  squash  or  beans  in  folds  of  moist  blotters  between  two 
plates  until  the  roots  are  two  or  three  inches  long.  Examine 
for  root-hairs  on  these  by  holding  them  against  a  dark  cloth 
or  paper. 

Stems  of  plants  have  several  uses:  They  support  the 
leaves  and  hold  them  up  to  the  air  and  light.  They  serve  as 
storehouses  for  the  saving  of  starch,  sugar,  and  other  forms 
of  nourishment  for  the  future  use  of  the  plant.  They  are 
the  channels  of  circulation  of  plant  sap  and  the  transfer 
of  plant  food  from  root  to  leaf  and  from  leaf  to  root. 


10  PRODUCTIVE    FARMING 

Exercise. — Sap  Channels  in  Stems. — Put  the  stems  of 
fresh  plants  into  water  colored  with  red  ink.  After  a  few 
hours  cut  off  the  stems  and  notice  the  stained  places  on  the 
cut  surface.  Use  for  this  exercise  some  woody  stems,  as 
willow,  and  others  like  celery  or  rhubarb,  golden-rod,  corn, 
tall  grass,  or  other  convenient  plants. 

The  different  ways  in  which  the  stems  of  various  plants 
hold  the  leaves  up  to  the  light  and  air  are  interesting.  Vines 
do  this  by  climbing  upon  objects  which  they  may  find  near 
them.  Trees  have  rigid  stems  which  hold  the  leaves  high 
in  the  air.  Those  growing  in  dense  forest  clumps  are  taller 
and  more  slender  than  those  growing  in  open  places  where 
there  is  plenty  of  light.  This  is  also  true  of  corn-stalks  planted 
close  or  far  apart. 

The  leaves  of  the  plant  have  much  work  to  do.  They 
secure  substances  from  the  air,  chiefly  carbon  dioxide,  and 
change  it  into  forms  of  food  that  will  build  up  the  plant  or 
produce  growth.  The  leaves  also  permit  the  escape  of  water 
from  the  plant  into  the  air.  Water  is  taken  up  by  the  roots, 
not  by  the  leaves.  There  are  large  amounts  of  water  given 
off  by  the  leaves  during  the  growth  of  the  plants. 

Exercise. — Plants  Absorb  Moisture. — Get  the  material 
shown  in  Fig.  3a.  After  the  corn  or  other  plant  is  a  few 
inches  high,  start  the  experiment.  Have  the  water  line 
marked  on  the  lard  pails  one  inch  above  the  bottom  of  the 
pots.  Each  day  fill  the  water  up  to  the  mark,  and  record 
the  amount  required  for  each  pail  in  two  weeks.  If  the  one 
with  the  growing  plant  requires  the  most,  where  has  the 
extra  water  gone  to  ? 

Exercise. — Moisture  from  Leaves. — Arrange  an  exper- 
iment as  shown  in  Fig.  36.  The  moisture  which  escapes 
from  the  leaves  will  partly  be  condensed  on  the  inside  of  the 
inverted  glass,  and  may  be  seen  in  fine  mist  or  drops. 

Leaf  Structure. — Fig.  4  shows  the  cut  edge  of  a  leaf. 
Between  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  the  leaf  there  are 


STRUCTURE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS     H 


many  soft  plant  cells.  These  cells  have  very  thin  walls 
and  are  bathed  by  air.  The  air  cavities  are  shown  at  A  in 
the  figure.  All  the  cells  shown  with  dark  grains  in  the  figure 
contain  the  green  coloring  matter  of  the  leaf.  This  is  called 
chlorophyl  (klo-ro-fil).    The  use  of  this  will  be  spoken  of  later. 


Fia.  3a. — Growing  plants  absorb  moisture  from  the  soil.  Two  flower-pots 
with  equal  amounts  of  the  same  kind  of  soil  are  set  in  lard  pails  having  water  up  to 
the  line  shown.     Corn  is  growing  only  in  the  left  one.     (Agricultural  Education.) 

Fig.  36. — Evaporation  of  water  from  leaves.  The  condensed  moisture  shows 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  glass  inverted  ever  the  growing  plant.  (Agricultural 
Education.) 

Exercise. — Skin  of  Leaf. — Break  a  leaf  partly  in  two 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  peel  the  surface  away  from  the  inner 
cells.  This  surface  layer  of  cells  is  clear  and  contains  no 
chlorophyl,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  outer  layer  of  cells  is 
so  thin  and  clear  that  sunlight  may  pass  through  and  reach 
the  green  cells  of  the  inner  part  of  the  leaf. 

Air  Openings. — ^Air  may  enter  the  leaf  through  small 
openings,  chiefly  on  the  under  side.  One  of  these  openings 
is  marked  S  in  Fig.  4.  These  are  called  stomates,  the  word 
meaning  ' 'mouths."  There  are  great  numbers  of  the  sto- 
mates on  the  under  surface  of  leaves.  Thej^  may  be  opened 
or  closed  according  to  the  condition  of  the  weather.  This 
is  done  by  the  action  of  a  pair  of  cells  at  the  opening  called 


12 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


guard-cells.  The  stomates  are  partly  closed  in  dry  weather. 
This  keeps  moisture  from  passing  too  freely  out  of  the  leaves 
into  the  air. 

Plants  Get  Food  from  Air. — Growing  plants  take  much 
of  the  substance  which  produces  growth  directly  from  the 
air.  They  use  the  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  which  is  given 
off  to  the  air  by  the  breathing  of  animals  and  by  the  burning 
and  decay  of  wood.  This  plant-food  from  the  air  furnishes 
about  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  dry  weight  of  plants.  It 
is  through  the  leaves  that  this  form  of  food  is  taken.    The 


SQQSS^^^QS^3S?C 


Fig.  4. — Cr^ss  section  of  leaf.  The  inner  cells  contain  chlorophyl;  those  near 
the  under  side  are  loose  to  allow  the  free  passage  of  air  (A).  Many  breathing  pores 
are  in  the  under  jikin ,     One  shows  at  S. 


breathing  pores  on  the  surface  of  green  leaves  allow  the  air 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  soft  cells  of  the  inner  tissue 
(Fig.  4). 

Sunlight  aids  the  plant  in  changing  the  carbon  dioxide 
into  starch  or  other  organic  food.  Only  those  plants  which 
contain  the  green  coloring  matter,  chlorophyl,  are  able  to 
use  the  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  and  change  it  in  this 
way.  Mushrooms  grow  in  the  dark,  and  have  no  chlorophyl. 
Their  food  is  not  taken  from  the  air  nor  from  the  real  soil, 
but  from  the  partly  decomposed  matter  in  the  soil. 

Exercise. — Need  of  Sunlight. — Place  a  board,  box,  or 
other  object  over  the  green  grass  of  a  lawn  and  let  it  remain 
for  several  days.  Notice  that  the  color  is  soon  gone  from 
the  leaves.     In  time  the  grass  would  be  killed.     Celery  is 


STRUCTURE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS     13 

blanched  by  excluding  the  light  from  the  stems.  Why  does 
a  covering  of  straw  or  other  thick  mulch  in  a  strawberry 
patch  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds?  What  harm  comes  from 
the  accidental  covering  with  soil  of  young  corn  plants  by 
the  cultivator? 

Exercise. — Leaves  Seek  lAght. — Set  some  growing  plants 
in  the  window  for  a  few  hours  and  notice  that  the  leaves 
turn  toward  the  light.  Turn  the  plants  around  and  see  how 
long  it  takes  for  the  leaves  to  face  the  light  again. 

Exercise. — To  Show  Presence  of  Starch. — Crack  a  few 
kernels  of  wheat  or  corn  and  treat  them  with  a  few  drops 
of  iodine.  The  change  of  color  which  follows  is  a  proof  of 
the  presence  of  starch.  This  was  stored  in  the  seed  for  its 
future  use.  Starch  turns  blue  when  treated  with  iodine. 
The  same  trial  made  with  potato,  corn-pith,  pith  of  tree 
twigs,  and  many  seeds,  will  show  the  presence  of  starch. 

Balance  in  Nature. — ^Animals  use  large  quantities  of 
oxygen  from  the  air  and  return  carbon  dioxide  to  the  air. 
Plants  make  use  of  the  waste  which  animals  breathe  off. 
The  plants  break  up  this  gas,  retaining  the  carbon  and  giving 
off  the  oxygen.  A  small  amount  of  oxygen  is  also  used  by 
plants.  The  carbon  retained  by  the  leaves  and  the  water 
which  the  plants  obtain  from  the  soil  are  combined  to  form 
organic  matter.  This  is  chiefly  starch  at  first,  but  it  may 
be  readily  changed  to  sugar  or  other  forms  suitable  for 
storage.  In  sugar-beets  and  sugar-cane  the  storage  matter 
is  largely  sugar. 

Tissue  for  new  growth  of  the  plant  may  be  formed  either 
from  stored  plant-food  or  from  newly-formed  plant-food  that 
has  not  been  taken  to  any  storage  place  in  the  plant. 

Exercise. — Balance  of  Life  in  an  Aquarium. — Make  an 
aquarium  in  a  large  fruit-jar  or  other  glass  vessel,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  5.  Very  clear  sand  is  used  in  the  bottom.  The  plants 
are  started  from  pieces  of  water  plants  commonly  growing 
in  ponds  or  lakes.     The  animals  may  be  water  insects  of 


14 


PRODUCTIVE    FARMING 


several  kinds— poUiwogs,  water  snails,  and  small  fish.  Set 
the  aquarium  in  a  very  Hght  place.  When  the  plants  begin 
to  grow,  they  will  give  off  oxygen  to  the  water.  The  animals 
will  breathe  the  oxygen  from  the  water.  A  little  careful 
observation  will  tell  whether  there  are 
too  many  animals  in  the  aquarium  or 
not.  If  the  fishes  come  to  the  surface 
to  breathe  a  great  deal,  some  of  them 
should  be  taken  out.  Snails  and  polli- 
wogs  are  scavengers  and  will  eat  the 
waste  matter  gathering  on  the  inside  of 
the  glass  and  on  the  plants.  Do  not 
let  the  pupils  feed  the  fishes  too  much. 
This  will  spoil  the  water  for  the  fishes. 
How  Plants  Get  Water.  — The 
moisture  from  the  soil  is  the  only  water 
taken  in  by  farm  crops.  This  enters 
through  the  thin  covering  of  the  root- 
hairs  growing  on  the  fibrous  roots. 
The  absorbing  surface  is  very  great  and 
large  quantities  of  liquid  are  taken 
up.  It  is  estimated  that  several  hun- 
dred tons  of  water  or  liquid  food  are  taken  up  by  a  corn  crop 
to  produce  one  ton  of  dry  fodder. 

Osmosis  is  the  name  of  the  process  by  which  hqaid  food 
is  taken  into  the  plant  through  the  roots.  A  little  of  the  acid 
or  other  cell  sap  in  the  roots  passes  into  the  soil  at  the  same 
time.  There  is  a  sort  of  trading  of  two  liquids  through  the 
surface  membrane  of  the  root-hairs.  A  very  little  of  the 
denser  liquid  of  the  plant  is  sent  out  in  exchange  for  a  large 
quantity  of  soil  water. 

Osmosis  may  be  defined  as  the  exchange  of  two  different 
liquids  through  a  thin  membrane  which  separates  them. 
Two  liquids  separated  by  a  membrane  wdll  pass  through  it 
and  mingle  with  each  other.    Soil  water  will  thus  reach  and 


Fig.  5. — A  sunlight 
aquarium.  The  plants  fur- 
nish oyxgen  and  the  ani- 
mals use  it.  The  animals 
produce  carbon  dioxide 
and  the  plants  use  it. 


STRUCTURE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS     15 


mingle  with  the  contents  of  root-hairs.  The  thin  liquid 
passes  more  rapidly.  Osmosis  may  be  well  illustrated  in  a 
number  of  ways. 

Exercise. — Osmosis  with  Potato. — Take  a  wilted  potato 
tuber  and  cut  it  into  slices  about  one-fourth  inch  thick. 
Place  a  few  slices  in  water.  They  become  more  rigid  in  an 
hour  or  so  because  of  the  water  taken  into  the  cells.  Place 
a  few  shces  in  strong  salt  water.  They  become  more 
flaccid  or  wilted  because  of  the  water  drawn  from  them  into 
the  brine.  The  potato  sap  is  naturally  denser  than  water, 
but  not  so  dense  as  the  salt  water. 

Exercise. — Osmosis  with  an  Egg. — In  the  small  end  of 
an  egg  make  a  hole  a  little  larger  than  a  pin  head.  Over 
this  hole  fasten  a  short  piece  of  glass 
tubing.  Melted  paraffin  or  wax  will 
fasten  it  well.  At  the  large  end  of  the 
egg  chip  away  a  bit  of  the  shell.  Place 
it  with  the  large  end  down  in  the  wide 
mouth  of  a  bottle  which  is  full  of 
water  (Fig.  6).  After  several  hours 
liquid  will  be  seen  to  rise  in  the  tube, 
evidently  caused  by  water  making  its 
way  through  the  thin  membrane  lining 
the  egg-shell.  This  membrane  shows 
no  pores  even  under  the  microscope. 

PIant=food  from  Soil.  —  If  plants 
take  about  ninety-five  per  cent  of  their 
food  from  the  air  there  is  left  only 
about  five  per  cent  to  be  obtained  from 
the  soil.  The  plant-food  from  soils 
must  be  in  soluble  form,  and  is  taken 
in  with  the  soil  water.  When  plant-food  is  soluble  it  can 
pass  through  the  membrane  of  the  fine  root-hairs  growing 
on  the  roots  of  plants.  It  produces  in  the  plant  the  part 
of  the  tissue  tvhich  is  called  the  ash  or  mineral  matter. 


Fig.  6. — Osmosis  with 
an  egg  over  a  bottle  of 
■water.  The  egg  liquid  and 
the  water  exchange  places 
through  the  membrane  of 
the  egg.  Water  moves  the 
faster  and  soon  fills  the 
shell  to  overflowing. 


16  PRODUCTIVE   FARMING 

Problem. — One  hundred  pounds  of  cured  corn  fodder 
contain  58  pounds  of  dry  matter,  2.9  pounds  of  which  are 
from  the  soil  and  the  remainder  from  the  air.  What  per 
cent  of  the  dry  matter  is  from  each  source  ? 

Exercise. — Mineral  Matter  in  Plants. — Burn  a  piece  of 
very  dry  wood  on  a  stove  shovel  in  the  stove,  to  save  all  the 
ashes  on  the  shovel.  If  the  dry  wood  be  weighed  first  and 
the  ashes  be  weighed  afterward  the  exact  proportion  can 
be  determined.  The  ash  represents  nearly  all  of  the  niineral 
matter  in  the  wood.  This  part  comes  from  the  soil  and  the 
remainder  chiefly  from  the  air.  This  exercise  shows  how 
small  a  part  of  the  plant's  food  is  from  the  soil;  but  this  part 
is  very  necessary.  Our  farm  crops  could  not  live  without 
the  ash  or  mineral  matter  which  they  obtain  from  the  soil. 

Other  Needs  of  the  Plant. — ^We  have  already  seen  that 
most  plants  need  light  to  make  use  of  the  food  which  they 
get  from  the  air.  Light  is  not  necessary  for  the  germination 
of  seeds  in  the  soil.  The  leaves  of  the  young  plant  soon  seek 
the  light  by  growing  toward  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

The  need  of  moisture  has  also  been  considered. 

Other  needs  of  the  plants  are  a  proper  amount  of  warmth 
and  a  supply  of  air. 

Light,  heat,  moisture,  and  air  are  all  needed  by  growing 
crops. 

Temperatures. — Certain  degrees  of  warmth  are  necessary 
for  the  best  growth  of  plants  and  the  sprouting  of  seeds. 
Very  few  seeds  will  sprout  if  colder  than  40  degrees  F.  or 
warmer  than  115°.  Wheat  will  not  sprout  below  41°  and 
prefers  a  warmth  of  60°  or  70°.  Corn  needs  more  heat;  even 
48°  is  too  cold  for  it  and  soil  as  warm  as  70°  or  even  90°  suits 
it  better.  Seeds  that  sprout  in  cool  soil  may  be  planted  in 
earliest  spring  time;  while  those  which  require  more  heat 
must  be  planted  later. 

Air  and  Oxygen. — Not  only  must  the  leaves  and  stems 
of  plants  have  free  access  to  air,  but  the  roots  of  our  farm 


STRUCTURE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS     17 

crops  must  be  in  soils  supplied  with  oxygen.  If  there  is  too 
much  standing  water  in  a  field  the  air  is  excluded  from  the 
soil  and  crops  do  not  thrive.  The  leaves  of  plants  turn 
yellowish  and  show  an  unhealthy  condition  if  the  soil  is  not 
supplied  with  air.  This  may  be  noticed  in  the  wet  parts  of 
a  cornfield.  If  the  soil  is  well  drained,  the  surplus  water 
gets  away  and  air  is  drawn  into  the  soil. 

Exercise. — Need  of  Air  for  Germination. — Put  a  dozen 
or  more  beans  or  kernels  of  corn  in  a  bottle  nearly  full  of 
water.  In  another  bottle  place  a  dozen  of  the  same  kind, 
thoroughly  wet  but  not  submerged  in  water.  Cover  both 
bottles  loosely  to  prevent  loss  of  water.  Put  both  in  a 
warm  place  and  watch  results  for  a  week  or  so.  The  water 
in  the  first  bottle  excludes  the  air  from  the  seeds.  If  they 
do  not  sprout  it  will  be  for  want  of  air.  When  crops  are 
planted  in  low,  wet  places  in  fields  the  seeds  refuse  to  grow 
for  lack  of  air. 

Exercise. — Need  of  Air  in  Soil. — Two  cans  of  soil  may 
be  planted  alike  with  the  beans  or  corn.  Have  one  can 
watertight  at  the  bottom,  and  the  other  with  plenty  of 
holes  through  the  bottom  for  drainage.  When  the  plants 
have  grown  a  few  inches  high  fill  the  undrained  can  with 
water  to  the  top  of  the  soil.  Notice  the  effect  on  the  plants 
in  that  can.  Compare  with  the  others  having  air  and  moist- 
ure both  in  the  soil. 

Purpose  of  Flowers. — The  main  aim  of  life  for  all  plants 

is  to  produce  seed.     To  do  this  a  flower  must  be  formed. 

The  form  and  structure  of  flowers  are  quite  variable,  as  seen 

when  the  strawberry  is   compared  with   the   lady-slipper 

and  the  apple. 

A  perfect  flower  has  two  different  kinds  of  essential 
organs,  the  'pistils  and  the  stamens.  The  stamens  bear 
pollen,  which  is  carried  to,  or  falls  upon,  the  pistil.  This 
fertilizes  the  pistil  and  enables  it  to  produce  the  seed.  The 
seed  or  seeds  of  most  plants  are  borne  in  the  lower  part  of 
2 


18 


PRODUCTIVE   FARMING 


the  pistil  called  the  ovary,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8.     The  other 
parts  of  a  perfect  flower  are  shown  in  that  figure. 

Imperfect  Flowers. — The  flowers  of  many  plants  are  not 
perfect.  Some  of  them  bear  the  stamens  only  and  others 
the  pistils.  In  the  cucumber,  musk-melon,  and  others,  the 
stamens  and  the  pistils  are  in  different  flowers  on  the  same 
plant.     In  any  case  where  the  flowers  are  not  perfect,  the 


Fig.  7. — Strawberry  blossoms.  Those  on  the  left  are  of  varieties  each  having 
both  stamens  and  pistils.  Those  on  the  right  have  only  pistils.  Varieties  whi^-h 
have  only  pistils  must  be  grown  near  perfect  varieties  so  the  pollen  may  be  carried 
to  them  at  the  blossoming  time.     (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


pollen  must  be  carried  by  some  means  to  the  flowers  having 
the  pistils;  otherwise  seed  could  not  be  formed. 

How  Pollen  is  Carried. — The  pollen  of  corn  and  many 
grasses  is  very  light  and  dry  and  is  carried  by  the  wind.  Some 
of  it  falls  upon  the  pistils  and  grows,  thus  helping  to  form 
seed.  The  pollen  of  most  fruits  and  vegetables  is  rather 
sticky  and  heavy  and  is  carried  by  insects.  Bees  and  other 
insects  visit  the  blossoms  in  search  of  nectar  to  make  honey. 
As  they  go  from  flower  to  flower  even  among  the  perfect 
blossoms,  much  pollen  is  distributed  where  it  is  needed. 
These  insects  are  attracted  to  flowers  by  the  bright  showy 
colors  of  the  petals  of  the  flower,  and  by  their  fragrance. 
Showy  petals  and  fragrant  blossoms  are  not  found  on  corn. 


STRUCTURE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS     19 


grains,  and  grasses,  because  their  pollen  is  borne  by  the  wind. 

Cross  Pollination. — Plants  are  said  to  be  cross  pollinated 
when  the  pollen  is  taken  from  one  to  another  by  some  means. 
Many  of  our  fruit  trees  bear  much  more  and  better  fruit 
when  they  are  cross  pollinated.  A  number  of  varieties  of 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  and  plums  will  not  bear  fruit  if  grown 
by  themselves.  They  produce  abundant  fruit  when  polli- 
nated by  other  varieties  of  the  same  class  that  blossom  at 
the  same  time.  For  this  reason  it  is  of  much  benefit  to  have 
plenty  of  bees  in  the  orchard  at  work  gathering  their  supply 
of  honey  during  the  blossoming  season.  The  owner  of  a 
large  orchard  should  have  a  yard  of  beehives.  The  work  of 
the  bees  gives  him  a  larger  crop  of  fruit  as  well  as  a  crop 
of  honey. 

Exercise. — Parts  of  a  Flower, —  The  members  of  the 
class  should  examine  a  few  large, 
simple  flowers  and  learn  to  name 
the  parts  shown  in  Fig.  8. 
United  States  Farmers'  Bulletin 
408  will  be  helpful  in  this  exercise. 

Exercise. — Pollination  of 
Corn. — Have  students  or  others 
bring  to  school  ears  of  corn  on 
which  some  of  the  kernels  failed 
to  develop.  This  shows  the  result 
of  poor  pollination.  Perhaps  a 
hot  wind  injured  the  silks,  or 
pistils,  before  the  pollen  was  re- 
ceived. Other  ears  may  be  shown 
which  have  sugar-corn  kernels 
mixed  with  field  corn,  or  have 
white  kernels  among  the  yellow, 
w^as  carried  from  other  corn  plants.  Two  different  kinds 
of  corn  should  not  be  planted  close  together  if  it  is  desirable 
to  keep  the  varieties  pure. 


Fio.  8. — Diagram  of  cro^  sec- 
tion of  a  flower,  p,  pistil;  o,  ovary 
with  young  seed  receiving  the  pol- 
len growth;  ST,  stamens;  po,  pollen 
scattering  from  stamen  to  pistil; 
PE,  petals;  se,  sepals. 


These  prove  that  pollen 


20  PRODUCTIVE   FARMING 

Purpose  of  Seeds. — A  true  seed  bears  within  its  coats 
a  minute  plant  called  the  germ.  Its  purpose  is  to  develop 
into  a  new  plant  like  the  parent  plant.  Some  nourishment 
is  stored  in  the  seed  for  the  use  of  the  young  plant  when  it 
begins  to  grow.  This  store  of  nourishment  in  the  bean  is 
in  the  two  seed  leaves  or  thickened  halves  of  the  bean.  In 
the  corn  kernel  a  store  of  starchy  matter  is  found  about  the 
germ. 

Exercise. — Study  of  Seeds. — Soak  some  large  lima  beans 
and  some  kernels  of  corn  for  a  few  days.  Let  each  member 
of  the  class  find  the  little  plant  inside  the  bean  coats;  and 
the  long  oval  germ  of  the  corn  imbedded  in  the  store  of 
starchy  matter.  Other  large  seeds  may  be  soaked  and  studied 
closely. 

Duration  of  Life. — With  respect  to  their  length  of  life 
most  farm  plants  are  divided  into  three  groups:  annuals , 
biennials,  and  perennials. 

Annual  plants  are  illustrated  by  corn,  oats,  beans,  and 
peas.  They  germinate,  grow,  blossom,  bear  seed,  and  die 
within  one  year.  No  part  lives  over  to  the  next  year  but  the 
seed. 

Biennials  are  not  so  numerous  among  farm  crops.  Exam- 
ples are  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  onions,  and  cabbage.  They 
germinate,  grow,  and  store  a  large  supply  of  nourishment 
the  first  3^ear.  The  second  year  they  use  up  this  store  of 
nourishment,  send  up  a  flower  stalk,  produce  flowers  and 
seed,  and  then  die.    Only  the  seed  lives  over. 

Perennials  include  many  of  the  grasses,  alfalfa,  trees, 
shrubs,  and  many  others.  They  germinate  and  grow  for 
some  time  without  bearing  blossoms  and  seeds.  When  old 
enough  they  begin  blossoming  and  bearing  fruit.  This  may 
continue  year  after  year  for  several  or  many  years.  The 
peach  tree  bears  some  fruit  the  second  or  third  year  and 
dies  after  ten  or  fifteen  years.  The  apple  tree  does  not  bear 
so  young  but  lives  much  longer. 


STRUCTURE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS     21 


REVIEW. 

1.  Name  the  five  parts  of  a  plant. 

2.  What  two  purposes  have  roots  ? 

3.  What  is  the  use  of  the  root  cap  ? 

4.  Describe  the  location  and  appearance  of  root  hairs. 

5.  Give  several  purposes  of  plant  stems. 

6.  What  are  the  uses  of  leaves  ? 

7.  Draw  and  describe  the  structure  of  the  leaf,  showing  the  air  cav- 
ities and  the  stomates. 

8.  What  food  do  plants  get  from  the  air  ?  What  do  they  make 
from  this  ? 

9.  What  plants  use  sunlight  ?    How  does  it  help  them  ? 

10.  Tell  of    the  balance  in  nature  in   the  production  and  use  of 
carbon  dioxide  and  of  oxygen. 

11.  Tell  how  the  oxygen  supply  is  produced  and  used  in  an  aqua- 
rium in  the  window. 

12.  How  do  field  crops  get  their  water  ? 

13.  What  is  osmosis  ? 

14.  Give  one  or  two  examples  of  osmosis. 

15.  How  much  of  the  food  of  plants  comes  from  the  air,  and  how 
much  from  the  soil  ? 

16.  From  what  source  is  the  ash  or  mineral  matter  derived  ?    The 
starch  ? 

17.  Mention  four  climatic  needs  of  the  growing  crop. 

18.  Tell  of  suitable  temperatures  for  the  sprouting  of  corn  and  of 
wheat. 

19.  What  is  the  effect  of  no  air  in  the  soil,  for  germinating  seeds 
and  for  growing  crops  ? 

20.  Tell  of  the  purpose  of  flowers. 

21.  Name  the  two  essential  organs  of  a  perfect  flower,  and  give  the 
use  of  each. 

22.  What  are  the  two  chief  ways  by  which  pollen  is  carried  ? 

23.  Give  two  ways  in  which  flowers  attract  bees  and  other  insects. 

24.  What  is  cross  pollination  ?     Of  what  benefit  is  it  in  orchards  ? 

25.  Why  should  fruit  growers  keep  bees  ? 

26.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  germ  in  a  seed  ? 

27.  Where  is  the  storage  matter  in  the  bean  ?    In  the  corn  kernel  ? 

28.  Give  the  Ufe  cycle  of  an  annual. 

29.  Describe  the  work  each  year  of  the  biennial  plant. 

30.  Define  a  perennial.     Give  examples. 

References.— United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins:  408,  School  Exer»- 
cises  in  Plant  Production;  409,  School  Lessons  on  Corn;  1905  Yearbook, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  pages  257-274,  The  Use  of  Illustrative 
Material  in  Teaching  i'^riculture  in  Rural  Schools. 


22  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


CHAPTER  II. 
PLANT  IMPROVEMENT— GOOD  SEED. 

One  of  the  best  ways  to  improve  our  crops  on  the  farms 
or  in  the  gardens  is  to  select  good  seeds  for  planting.  It  is 
a  law  of  nature  that  ''  like  produces  like." 

Seed  Selection. — Careful  selection  year  by  year  will 
gradually  improve  any  crop.  The  seeds  should  be  healthy 
in  every  respect,  free  from  impurities,  large  and  heavy  for 
its  kind,  and  taken  from  the  best  plants.  We  may  save  seeds 
from  those  plants  in  the  garden  that  show  the  qualities 
which  we  want.  The  same  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
selection  of  seed  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  other  field  crops.  In 
the  case  of  corn  and  potatoes  it  is  possible  to  select  seed  in 
the  field  from  the  best  individual  plants  or  hills,  but  in  the 
case  of  small  grains  this  method  would  not  be  practicable. 
With  these  grains  we  should  follow  some  good  method  of 
grading  to  secure  good,  large,  plump  kernels;  such  have  the 
best  characters  (Fig.  9). 

Sifting  and  Fanning  Grain. — Sieves  are  very  useful  for 
separating  the  poor  seed  from  the  good.  Meshes  of  just  the 
proper  size  are  used  to  screen  the  large  and  let  the  small 
fall  through  the  sieve.  The  practice  of  winnowing  the  grain, 
used  in  olden  times,  is  now  replaced  by  the  use  of  fanning 
mills.  Fanning  devices  are  usually  found  in  threshing  ma- 
chines to  separate  the  chaff,  lighter  seeds,  and  trash  from  the 
heavier  grains.  All  seeds  to  be  sown  should  be  cleaned  and 
re-cleaned  until  they  are  pure  and  of  the  best  quality.  (See 
exercise  with  large  and  small  radish  seeds,  page  28.) 

Wheat  and  other  small  grains  have  been  less  improved 
by  selection  than  corn  because  the  kernels  are  handled  less, 
and  being  smaller  less  attention  is  given  to  their  individual 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT,  GOOD  SEED  23 

characters  when  being  harvested.  The  smaller  grains  are 
now  receiving  the  attention  of  a  few  experiment  stations, 
and  valuable  improvements  are  being  made. 

Choosing  from  the  Best. — With  garden  plants  such  as 
squashes,  melons  and  tomatoes  we  should  not  only  choose 
good  specimens  from  which  to  save  seed,  but  we  should  select 
those  specimens  from  plants  that  yield  large  crops  of  good 
fruits.  This  selection  can  be  done  more  carefully  by  the 
grower  himself  than  it  can  by  any  wholesale  methods  where 
large  quantities  are  carelessly  saved  from  large  areas.    When 


Fig.  9. — Good  plump  wheat  at  the  left;  a  poor  type  of  wheat  at  the  right,  with 
narrow  shrivelled  kernels.     (Experiment  Station,  Kans.) 

a  few  desirable  individual  plants  are  found,  they  can  be 
rapidly  multiplied. 

The  Ear=Row  Method. — The  best  ear  of  corn  from  the 
best  bearing  stalk  may  be  saved  for  seed  and  planted  in  a 
row  by  itself.  This  corn  may  produce  many  good  stalks 
with  ears  as  good  or  better  than  the  one  we  began  with. 
If  the  corn  of  each  ear  is  grown  in  a  separate  row  we  can 
compare  the  yields  of  these  rows  and  select  the  next  seed 
accordingly.  These  best  ears  should  be  grown  in  a  separate 
field  where  the  wind  cannot  carry  pollen  to  it  from  other 
cornfields. 

The  HiII=Row  Method. — Potatoes  should  be  grown  from 
those  found  on  the  best  individual  plants.  If  the  potatoes 
from  two  plants  or  hills  weigh  about  the  same  they  may  be 
planted  in  separate  rows.  The  best  row  will  next  furnish 
the  hills  for  seed-potatoes. 

Bud  Selection. — Peaches,  plums,  apples,  grapes,  and 
some  other  fruits  are  propagated  by  the  use  of  buds,  grafts. 


24  PRODUCTIVE   FARMING 

cuttings,  and  divisions  of  the  plants.  The  buds  or  other 
parts  are  taken  from  the  best  plants  of  the  preferred  varieties. 
Their  seed,  if  used,  would  not  come  true  to  kind. 

The  Weed  Nuisance. — One  of  the  greatest  hindrances 
to  good  farming  is  the  presence  of  weeds  in  the  fields.  Weed 
seed  is  in  the  soils,  in  the  grain,  grass  seed,  and  nearly  all 
farm  seeds.  (Figs.  10a  and  b.)  There  are  thirty  or  more  un- 
desirable weeds  to  be  found  in  clover  seed  and  alfalfa  seed. 


Fig.  10a. — Hay-field  filled  in  late  summer  with  wild  carrots  or  Queec 
Anne's  lace. 

Fig.  106. — Hay-field  "taken"  by  dandelion. 

The  grass  seed  is  too  often  full  of  bad  weed  seed.  There 
is  no  place  on  the.  farm  where  weeds  are  a  greater  enemy 
to  our  success  than  in  the  grass  fields.  It  is  harder  to  get 
rid  of  them  there  than  from  the  fields  where  we  are  doing 
some  tilling.  But  most  of  the  weeds  found  in  the  pastures 
and  hay-fields  have  been  sown  there  or  near  there  by  some 
farmer,  at  some  time  in  the  past.  Some  weed  seeds  are 
sown  from  fence  rows  by  the  wind. 

Examining  for  Impurities. — Weed  seeds  and  other  impu- 
rities can  usually  be  seen  with  a  common  reading  glass  or 
pocket  microscope.    The  proper  thing  to  do  is  to  examine 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT,  GOOD  SEED  25 

seeds  before  buying  them,  and  avoid  spending  money  for 
weed  seeds  to  sow  on  the  farm.  At  least  let  us  look  at  the 
seed  before  sowing  it.    (Fig.  11.) 

Exercise.  —  Looking  fm-  Weed  Seed.  —  Let  each  pupil 
have  a  half  teaspoonful  of  clover  or  other  common  farm 
seeds.  Spread  them  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper.  Let  the  seed 
be  examined  without  the  aid  of  lenses  first.  The  weeds  that 
are  known  should  be  put  to  one  corner  of  the  paper  which 
is  labeled  ''known  weeds."     In  another  place  put  the  im- 


Fio.  11. — Seeds  mounted  in  holes  in  heavy  pasteboard  between  two  pieces  of 
dass  held  with  paper  binding.  A  tripodlens  used  for  seed  study.  (Agricultural 
Education.) 


known  weeds;  and  in  another  the  dirt,  grit,  sticks,  and  other 
dead  matter;  in  another  the  shriveled  seed  of  the  kind  you 
have  present.  Single  seeds  may  be  moved  by  use  of  a  moist 
pencil  point  or  similar  object.  When  the  study  is  completed, 
count  or  estimate  the  lots  of  each  kind  to  determine  the  per 
cent  of  each. 

Exercise. — Another  Way  of  Looking  at  Seeds. — Moisten 
the  first  joint  of  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  and  dip  it  into 
the  seed  to  be  studied.  One  layer  of  seed  will  cover  the 
moist  surface.  With  a  lens  or  reading  glass  in  the  right  hand 
the  seed  may  be  carefully  examined  for  impurities.  (Figs. 
12a  and  6.) 


26 


PRODUCTIVE   FARMING 


Exercise.  —  Identifying  Weed  Seeds.  —  The  figures  in 
U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins  260  and  382  will  help  to  determine 
the  names  of  the  weed  seeds  not  known  by  the  pupils.  Let 
students  cut  out  the  figures  and  paste  them  on  a  card  for 
quick  reference.  If  the  school  has  a  collection  of  weed  seeds 
in  small  bottles  (Fig.  14),  they  may  now  be  used  to  help 
identify  the  unknown  seeds. 

Exercise.  — To  Compare  Good  and,  Poor  Lots  of  Grass 
Seeds. — Take  a  piece  of  clean  window  glass  and  wet  it  with 


Fig.  12a. — Teacher  showing  the  class  how  to  examine  a  seed  sample. 
Fig.  126. — Seeds  on  the  thumb,  magnified  through  a  reading  glass. 

water.  Spread  on  it  a  thin  layer  of  blue-grass  or  of  red-top 
seeds.  Hold  the  glass  between  you  and  the  bright  light. 
Notice  how  many  of  the  glumes  or  husks  are  hollow.  Com- 
pare in  this  way  a  good  sample  with  a  poor  one.  Note  the 
difference  in  the  amount  of  chaff. 

Seed  Analysis. — The  methods  of  studying  seeds  outlined 
in  two  preceding  exercises  may  be  called  seed  analysis.  The 
sieves  mentioned  before  may  also  be  used  in  analyzing  a 
sample  of  seed  as  well  as  in  aiding  in  the  cleaning  of  large 
quantities. 

Seed  Testing.  —  Another  way  to  detect  impurities  in 
seeds  is  by  sprouting  a  sample  of  the  seed  and  then  observ- 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT,  GOOD  SEED  27 

ing  the  differences  in  character  of  growth;  they  may  differ 
in  the  shape  or  number  of  seed  leaves,  or  in  manner  of  coming 
out  of  the  seed  coats. 

Another  reason  for  seed  testing  is  to  determine  the 
vitaUty  or  germinating  power  of  the  sample. 

There  are  several  advantages  of  knowing  the  vitality: 

1.  It  will  save  us  buying  poor  seed  if  we  test  a  sample 
before  buying. 

2.  If  the  test  is  low  we  will  not  use  the  seed  at  all,  even 
if  we  own  it. 

3.  If  it  is  as  good  as  we  can  get  we  will  plant  enough  more 
seed  than  usual  to  allow  for  the  reduced  vitality. 

4.  Thus  knowing  how  much  to  plant,  will  save  us  the 
time,  labor,  and  expense  of  replanting  a  crop  after  the  first 
planting  shows  a  poor  stand. 

5.  The  first  planting  being  made  ^dth  good  seed  will  give 
us  a  good  even  stand  at  the  proper  season,  instead  of  too  late. 

6.  This  means  a  better  harvest  and  good  return  for  labor 
expended  in  cultivation  through  the  season. 

Methods  of  Testing  Seeds. — When  seeds  are  to  be  tested 
they  must  be  given  proper  moisture,  warmth,  and  air;  these 
must  not  change  much  during  the  test.  A  warm  living  room 
is  about  right  if  the  moisture  is  held  close  about  the  seeds. 

A  common  way  is  to  take  two  lots  of  one  hundred  seeds 
each;  these  are  planted  in  a  shallow  box  of  moist  sand. 

Another  good  way  to  test  seeds  is  to  place  them  in  pans 
or  deep  plates  between  wet  blotters  or  layers  of  w^t  cloth 
(Fig.  13).  The  plates  are  placed  one  above  another  as  high 
as  desired.  A  label  is  made  for  each  lot  of  seeds  by  using 
pencil  and  paper,  thus: 

Date — February  10. 

Number  of  seeds 100 

Kind Red  clover 

Number  sprouted 90 

Per  cent  of  good  seed 90 


28  PRODUCTIVE   FARMING 

Folds  of  wet  cloth  may  be  made.  A  lot  of  seeds  with  its 
label  is  placed  in  each  fold.  This  is  carefully  placed  in  a  cov- 
ered pan  in  a  warm  place.  If  a  hundred  seeds  are  taken  each 
time,  the  per  cent  of  germination  is  more  exactly  expressed. 

Exercise. — To  Test  Seeds. — Have  grains  and  garden  seeds 
brought  to  school.  Have  them  counted,  labeled,  and  tested 
by  each  method  described  here.  Winter  and  early  spring 
are  good  times  to  make  such  trials  with  seeds. 

Exercise. — Size  of  Seeds. — From  a  large  package  of 
radish  seeds,  select  100  of  the  largest,  and  another  100  of 
the  smallest.     Make  sprouting  tests  of  these  two  lots,  by 


Fig.  13. — A  convenient  home  apparatus  for  testing  seeds.  The  seeds  are  germi- 
nated between  wet  cloths  or  blotters.  The  plates  help  to  hold  the  moisture. 
(Agricultural  Education.) 

planting  them  in  a  shallow  box  of  moist  sand  or  soil.  Keep 
them  in  separate  rooms,  and  label  them.  Does  the  result 
sho)v  that  gardeners  should  select  large  seeds?  Could  this 
be  done  with  sieves? 

Buy  the  Best. — It  seldom  pays  to  buy  cheap  seeds.  The 
age,  size,  weight,  purity,  and  vitality  should  always  be  deter- 
mined before  purchasing. 

Cheap  seeds  are  sometimes  mixed  with  better  seeds  if 
the  two  kinds  look  much  alike.  Old  seeds  which  have  nearly 
lost  their  life  are  sometimes  made  fresh  looking  by  using 
fumes  of  sulphur.  These  are  then  mixed  with  good  seeds 
and  sold.    Such  mixtures  are  called  adulterations. 

Immature  seeds  are  those  not  fully  ripened;  such  seed 
cannot  sprout  well.  To  sprout  under  ordinary  field  con- 
ditions, the  seed  must  be  fully  matured. 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT,  GOOD  SEED  29 

Storage  of  seed  under  proper  conditions  is  quite  impor- 
tant. Most  seeds  should  be  promptly  dried  when  first  taken; 
they  are  then  kept  free  from  moisture  and  from  frost.  They 
need  to  be  kept  away  from  mice  and  from  insect  pests  such 
as  weevils. 

Weeds  have  been  briefly  defined  as  "plants  out  of  place." 
This  is  a  satisfactory  meaning  of  the  term,  for  many  plants 
that  are  grown  for  the  uses  of  man  are  objectionable  when 
found  among  other  crops.  Rosebushes  sprouting  in  a  corn- 
field are  called  weeds.  Likewise  corn  in  a  rose  garden  is 
considered  as  a  weed.  Noxious  weeds,  however,  are  those 
plants  which  are  very  frequently  found  in  fields,  or  gardens, 
or  other  undesirable  places. 

Classification. — Weeds  may  be  grouped,  according  to 
the  length  of  life,  into  annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials. 

Annual  weeds  bear  blossoms  and  seeds  the  first  year 
and  then  die  entirely.  This  group  includes  many  of  our 
most  abundant  weeds>  such  as  rough  pigweed,  lamb's-quar- 
ter,  Russian  tumbleweed,  the  large  sunflower,  horseweed 
or  fleabane,  ragweed,  Spanish  needles,  buffalo  bur,  purs- 
lane, cocklebur,  corn  cockle,  mustard,  chickweed,  and  field 
dodder. 

The  annual  weeds  are  more  commonly  found  in  with 
annual  crops  such  as  grain,  corn,  potatoes,  and  garden 
annuals;  this  is  chiefly  because  the  weed  seeds  sown  each 
year  by  the  plants  find  ready  lodgement  in  the  freshly  plowed 
or  cultivated  fields  and  gardens. 

One  of  the  easiest  ways  to  get  rid  of  a  bad  field  of  annual 
weeds  is  to  rotate  the  crops  by  thickly  seeding  the  field  to 
clover  or  grasses.  Annual  weeds  are  seldom  found  in  such 
fields,  particularly  after  the  first  cutting  of  the  hay. 

Biennial  weeds  are  those  plants  which  live  two  years, 
the  first  year  making  a  vigorous  growth  and  storing  some 
nourishment,  but  bearing  no  blossoms  nor  seeds  until  the 
second  smnmer.     There  are  not  many  common  kinds  of 


30 


PRODUCTIVE    FARMING 


weeds  in  this  group.     Burdock,   teasel,   bull  thistle,  wild 
carrot  (Fig.  10a)  and  parsnip  are  common  biennial  weeds. 

Perennial  weeds  live  several  years  and  bear  blossoms 
and  seeds  each  year.  The  roots  or  underground  parts  live 
over  from  year  to  year,  and  usually  new  leaves  and  stems 
are  sent  up  from  the  old  roots  in  the  spring.  Such  weeds  are 
most  commonly  found  in  pastures,  hay-fields,  lawns,  road- 
sides, and  fence  rows.  They  grow  in  places  where  their 
roots  may  live  undisturbed  in  the  soil  from  year  to  year. 
Because  of  this  we  may  conclude  that  rotation  of  crops  will 


mnmmmmmmmmm* 


mmmmmmmmum 


Fig.  14. — Seed  samples  in  wooden  case,  bottles  held  in  place  with  shoestring. 
(Agricultural  Education.) 

help  destroy  them.  When  a  hay-field  is  plowed  and  harrowed 
for  corn,  nearly  all  kinds  of  perennial  weeds  are  killed. 

Examples  of  perennials  are:  Canada  thistle,  quack  or 
couch  grass,  Johnson  grass,  curled  or  yellow  dock,  smart- 
w^eed,  dandelion  (Fig.  106),  golden  hawkweed,  milk-weed,  nut 
sedge,  ox-eye  daisy,  rib-grass  plantain,  wide-leaved  plan- 
tain, red  field  sorrel,  toad  flax,  white  and  purple  fall  asters, 
wild  garlic,  chicory. 

Exercise. — Collecting  Weed  Specimens. — In  the  fall  of 
the  year  a  collection  of  weeds  should  be  made  by  the  student. 
One  set  of  the  specimens  should  be  kept  at  the  school.  They 
may  be  dried  by  spreading  out  the  plants  between  large 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT,  GOOD  SEED  31 

folded  newspapers.  Put  the  pile  of  papers  and  plants  on 
the  floor;  place  over  them  a  board  and  stone  or  other  heavy 
object.    This  pressure  will  drive  the  moisture  from  the  plants 


Fig.  15. — Seeds  mounted  in  holes  in  a  wooden  board  and  covered  with  glass. 
They  are  arranged  by  colors  to  aid  in  identifying  other  seeds.  (Agricultural 
Education.) 

into  the  papers.  Change  the  papers  from  day  to  day  until 
the  plants  feel  quite  dry.  They  may  then  be  fastened  to 
sheets  of  paper  or  cardboard  eleven  by  seventeen  inches. 
Find  the  names  of  the  weeds  from  any  one  who  knows  them, 


32  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

group  them  into  annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials.  U.S.  Far- 
mers' Bulletin  28  will  be  of  much  help  in  the  study  of  weeds. 
Exercise. — Seed  Collection. — Let  the  pupils  bring  to 
school  in  the  fall  such  weed  seeds  as  they  can  find  upon  the 
known  weeds.  These  may  be  carried  in  small  papers  or  old 
envelopes  on  which  the  name  of  the  plant  is  written.  These 
may  be  transferred  to  small  bottles  as  in  Fig.  14,  or  to  holes 
in  a  seed  board  made  like  the  one  shown  in  "Fig.  15.  A  col- 
lection of  farm  and  garden  seeds  should  also  be  made  for 
the  school  to  use. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Tell  of  the  value  of  sifting  and  fanning  grain  which  is  to  be  used 
for  seed. 

2.  From  which  plants  in  a  garden  should  the  gardener  save  seeds  ? 

3.  Describe  the  ear-row  method  of  improving  corn. 

4.  Describe  the  hill-row  method  of  improving  seed  potatoes. 

5.  Tell  why  weeds  are  so  prevalent  and  give  a  remedy. 

6.  Why  should  farm  seeds  be  examined  before  they  are  purchased 
or  sown  ? 

7.  Tell  how  to  analyze  a  sample  of  clover  seed. 

8.  Tell  how  to  mount  a  sample  of  grass  seed  to  study  its  value. 

9.  Give  a  number  of  advantages  from  knowing  the  vitality  of  seeds. 

10.  Describe  the  plate  method  of  seed  testing. 

11.  Describe  some  other  good  method  of  testing  seeds. 

12.  Tell  of  some  ways  in  which  seeds  are  sometimes  adulterated. 

13.  What  are  immature  seeds  ?    Why  not  plant  such  ? 

14.  Tell  how  seeds  should  be  stored. 

1 5.  What  are  noxious  weeds  ? 

16.  What  are  annuals  ?    biennials  ?    perennials  ? 

17.  Where  are  annual  weeds  most  commonly  found  ? 

18.  In  what  places  are  perennials  most  commonly  found  ? 

19.  Name  several  annual  weeds. 

20.  Name  several  common  biennial  weeds. 

21.  Name  all  the  perennial  weeds  you  can. 

22.  Of  what  value  is  a  collection  of  weed  specimens  in  school  ? 

23.  Why  should  every  one  know  the  common  weeds  ? 

24.  Would  a  collection   of    seeds   properly  labeled  be    of   use  in 
school  ?    Why  ? 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  145,  Carbon  Bisulphid  as  an 
Insecticide ;  also  Nos.  28,  86,  188,  194,  260,  and  382. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  WITHOUT  SEEDS     33 


CHAPTER  III. 
PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  WITHOUT  SEEDS. 

The  Raising  of  Fruit  Trees. — Plants  propagate  them- 
Belves  naturally  either  by  seeds  or  by  buds.  One  or  both  of 
these  natural  methods  is  used  by  the  farmer  for  all  plants 
and  crops.  Very  few  fruits  "come  true"  from  seed  because 
the  seeds  are  formed  by  cross-pollination.  The  pollen  is 
carried  by  insects  and  wind  from  other  varieties.  For  this 
reason  the  nurserymen,  who  produce  the  young  fruit  trees 
or  bushes,  must  avoid  the  use  of  seeds.  With  such  fruits  seeds 
may  be  used  in  an  effort  to  secure  new  varieties,  or  to  pro- 
duce stocks  on  which  to  grow  the  improved  varieties;  but 
the  standard  sorts  are  multiplied  by  some  form  of  bud 
propagation,  such  as  grafting,  true  budding,  layering,  and 
making  cuttings. 

Propagation  of  Apples. — One  common  method  for  the 
production  of  young  apple  trees  involves  the  use  of  grafting. 
It  is  called  the  root-grafting  process. 

First. — Seeds  from  cider-presses  are  planted  in  garden 
rows  and  the  young  trees  cultivated  for  one  summer  to  get 
the  greatest  growth  possible.  These  trees  would  probably 
never  bear  good  apples  if  they  were  allowed  to  reach  matu- 
rity, but  they  serve  admirably  as  the  stocks  on  which  to  grow 
good  trees.  They  are  taken  up  roots  and  all,  in  the  fall, 
tied  in  bundles  of  one  hundred  each,  and  well  stored  in  moist- 
ened sawdust  in  a  very  cold  cellar. 

Second. — ^Well-matured  shoots  of  one-year  wood  are  cut 
for  scions  from  the  tops  of  good  specimens  of  apple  trees  of 
the  varieties  we  may  wish  to  propagate.  These  are  properly 
labelled,  tied  in  bundles,  and  stored  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  seedling  trees.  This  is  done  in  late  fall. 
3 


34 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Third. — The  actual  work  of  grafting  the  tops  of  the 
desired  varieties  onto  the  roots  of  the  young  seedlings  is  to 
be  done  during  the  winter  months.  This  work  is  done  in 
the  cool  cellar  and  the  little  grafted  trees  are  then  tied  into 
bundles  and  stored  until  warm  spring  weather. 

Fourth. — The  httle  trees  are  set  in  good  rich  garden  soil, 
deep  enough  to  cover  the  union  or  grafted  point  well.  The  top 
of  the  plant  with  a  bud  or  two  will  be  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  dirt  should  be  well  tramped  around  the  grafts. 
Details  of  Root=grafting. — The  tops  are  cut  from  the 
young  seedling  trees  and  destroyed.  The  top-shoots  from 
good  trees  are  inserted  upon  the  roots  in  their  place.  The 
new  tops  are  called  scions.  They  may  be  only  a  few  inches 
long  and  contain  from  three  to  six  buds.    The  roots  may  be 

either  used  entire  for  each  new 
tree;  or  they  may  be  cut  into 
pieces  four  to  six  inches  long, 
and  a  graft  made  on  each  piece. 
Whip  or  Tongue  Graft. — The 
kind  of  graft  or  union  to  make 
for  apple  root  grafts  is  the  one 
that  is  known  by  nurserymen 
as  the   tongue   or  whip  graft. 
This  is  shown  in   Fig.   16;  A 
represents  the  upper  end  of  the 
piece  of  root  cut  so  that  there 
is  a  tongue  ready  to   slip  be- 
neath a  similar  tongue  made  in 
the    scion,    shown    at    B.     As 
soon  as   cut  they  are    slipped 
together  very  firmly,  as  shown 
at  C.    Now  a  piece  of  waxed  knitting  cotton  is  wrapped 
about  the  grafted  portion  to  hold  the  parts  snugly  together. 
It  is  necessary  to  have  the  root  and  scion  of  the  same 
diameter  or  nearly  so.      The  cambium,  or  growing  layer,  is 


Fig.  16. — Steps  in  root-grafting 
of  apples.  A,  the  small  root  tongue 
cut;  B,  the  scion  with  tongue  cut; 
C,  the  two  in  place  ready  to  tie  with 
woven  cotton. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  WITHOUT  SEEDS    35 

just  beneath  the  bark  of  each.  If  the  cambium  of  the  scion 
is  in  perfect  contact  with  the  cambium  of  the  root,  growth 
is  hkely  to  take  place,  otherwise  they  will  probably  not  live. 

Exercise. — Root-grafting. — Let  the  students  have  some 
practice  in  making  root-grafts.  Until  the  method  is  well 
learned,  it  is  best  to  use  willow  or  any  other  convenient 
switches  to  represent  the  roots  and  scions  of  apples.  The 
second  lesson  may  be  with  the  real  apple  roots  and  apple 
scions.  These  may  be  secured  in  the  neighborhood  or  from 
any  nurseryman.  For  this  exercise  and  the  exercise  in 
budding  any  wide  thin-bladed  pocket  knives  will  do  if  better 
ones  are  not  available.    Have  them  very  sharp. 

Exercise. — Making  Grafting  Wax. — Melt  together  in  a 
tin  can  or  pail  one  pound  of  rosin,  one-half  pound  of  beeswax 
or  paraffin,  and  four  ounces  of  tallow;  when  well  melted  and 
mixed  allow  the  mass  to  cool  a  little  and  then  pour  it  into 
a  pail  of  cold  water.  Let  one  or  two  pupils  rub  tallow  on 
their  hands,  work  and  pull  the  mass,  as  they  would  pull 
candy,  until  it  is  of  a  light  yellow  color;  make  it  into  rolls 
and  lay  on  a  sheet  of  greased  wrapping  paper  to  harden. 

Exercise. — Waxing  Cotton  for  Grafting. — While  the  wax 
is  melted,  in  the  preceding  exercise,  put  into  it  for  a  few 
moments  a  ball  of  No.  18  or  No.  20  knitting  cotton.  Remove 
it  and  let  it  cool  on  a  sheet  of  greased  paper.  Pieces  of  this 
six  or  eight  inches  long  will  be  used  to  wrap  around  each 
root-graft  and  may  be  used  in  the  budding  exercises. 

Budding  Apple  Trees. — New  apple  trees  of  the  preferred 
varieties  may  be  propagated  by  budding.  This  method  is 
now  quite  common  among  nurserjonen.  The  young  seedling 
trees  for  stocks  are  growTi  in  good  soil  for  one  season,  or 
until  August,  from  seeds  sowti  the  preceding  spring. 

Scions  or  bud  sticks  are  taken  from  the  new  growth  on 
trees  we  wish  to  propagate.  This  is  done  in  August  or  early 
September.  The  leaves  are  all  clipped  off  leaving  about 
one-half  inch  of  each  leaf  stem  on  the  twig  to  serve  as  bud 


S6 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


handles.  The  budding  is  done  immediately.  One  bud  from 
the  budding  stick  is  inserted  just  under  the  bark  of  the  little 
seedling  tree  a  few  inches  above  the  ground.  How  to  insert 
the  bud  will  be  described  under  ''Budding  Peaches. *' 

The  little  seedling  is  not  disturbed  in  this  method  of 
propagating  apple  trees.    The  roots  are  left  growing  in  the 
soil.     The  new  bud  becomes   united  to  the  surrounding 
tissues  that  fall.    All  the  top  above  the  bud  is  pruned  away 
(Fig.  17)  just  as  soon  as  the  new  bud 
starts  growth  in  spring,  and  all  the 
natural  buds  of  the  seedling  stock  are 
rubbed  off.    Then  the  new  bud  makes 
a  vigorous  growth  and  is  soon  devel- 
oped into  the  new  tree  top. 

Another  method  is  to  insert  the 
buds  of  the  desired  varieties  in  the 
little  seedling  trees  the  following 
spring.  In  this  case  the  scions  are 
taken  when  dormant  and  stored  in  a 
cold  cellar  until  about  June.  This 
method  is  quite  common  in  some  sec- 
tions, particularly  where  the  hot,  dry 
weather  of  August  would  be  injurious. 
After  one  season's  growth  the 
most  vigorous  budded  or  root-grafted 
trees  are  ready  to  transplant  to  the 
orchard.  They  are  then  called  one- 
year  old  trees.  Many  apple  growers  prefer  to  leave  them 
in  the  nursery  one  more  year,  and  always  select  two- 
year-old  trees  for  the  setting  out  of  new  apple  orchards. 
Budding  Peaches  and  Plums. — Improved  varieties  of 
peaches  and  plums  are  propagated  by  budding. 

Stocks  for  this  purpose  are  usually  started  from  pits  of 
native  or  seedling  peaches  and  plums.  Special  kinds  of  stocks, 
however,  are  desired  for  a  few  particular  varieties  of  plums. 


Fig.  17.— Method  of 
pruning  a  budded  tree 
after  the  new  shoot  starts. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  WITHOUT  SEEDS    37 

The  pits  of  peaches  and  plums  are  hard  to  start  into 
growth,  the  shell  is  too  hard  for  the  germ  to  burst  through. 
They  must  be  frozen  over  winter  or  cracked  by  hand.  Fre- 
quently layers  of  peach  pits  are  covered  with  a  little  sand  in 
shallow  boxes.  This  is  called  stratifying  the  pits.  These  are 
left  exposed  to  the  weather  over  winter.  The  action  of  the 
frost  should  crack  them.  In  spring  they  are  to  be  planted 
in  rows  three  feet  apart  in  rich  garden  soil.  They  are  given 
thorough  tillage  until  August,  when  they  are  to  be  budded. 


Fig.  18. — Method  of  budding  a  young  fruit  tree.  A,  the  bud  and  surrounding 
parts  cut  from  a  good  variety;  B,  the  T-shaped  cut  in  bark  of  tree  to  be  budded; 
C,  the  same  rolled  back  ready  to  receive  the  good  bud;  D,  the  good  bud  set  in  place 
under  bark;  E,  the  bud  and  bark  tied  securely  in  place  with  waxed  knitting  cotton 
or  with  raffia  fiber. 


Peach  and  plum  scions  or  budding  sticks  are  cut  from 
the  new  growth  on  the  trees  of  the  desired  varieties.  The 
leaves  are  trimmed  off,  but  stems  are  left  near  each  bud  to 
aid  in  handling  w^hen  the  bud  is  removed  from  the  scion. 
The  buds  are  inserted  on  the  stocks  right  away.  The  oper- 
ator must  get  down  close  to  the  ground  to  do  the  work 
properly.  The  top  of  the  seedling  stock  is  cut  away  early 
the  following  spring  before  the  buds  swell.  This  forces  all 
the  sap  of  the  root  system  to  the  new  bud  and  the  growth  will 
be  rapid.     One-year-old  trees  of  peach  and  plum  varieties 


38 


PRODUCTIVE   FARMING 


should  be  transplanted  to  the  orchard.  If  left  in  the  nur- 
sery rows  longer  than  for  one  year's  growth  from  the  bud, 
they  are  likely  to  become  misshapen  or  overgrown  and  will 
be  undesirable  trees  for  the  orchard. 

How  Budding  is  Done. — A  good,  healthy  bud  is  cut  from 
the  scion  with  the  bark  surrounding  it  in  the  forni  of  a  shield 
(Fig.  18,  A).  A  cut  is  now  made  through  the  bark  of  the 
stock,  in  the  form  of  a  letter  T,  shown  at  B;  this  is  pref- 
erably done  on  the  north  side 
of  the  stock  to  avoid  the  hot 
sun.  Turn  back  the  edges  of 
the  bark  as  shown  at  C. 
Insert  the  bud  into  its  new 
home  just  under  the  bark  as 
shown  at  D.  The  top  of  the 
shield  must  be  as  low  as  the 
top  of  the  T.  Tie  the  bark 
down  tightly  over  the  edges  of 
the  shield  as  at  E;  waxed 
knitting  cotton.  No.  18  or  20, 
may  be  used  for  this,  as  it  will 
not  grow  into  the  bark  and 
stop  circulation;  raffia  fiber 
is  also  good  for  this  purpose. 
Exercise. — Practice  in 
Budding. — Twigs  from  willow 
trees  may  be  placed  in  water  in  a  warm  room  in  the  winter 
and  the  bark  well  loosened  in  a  few  days.  Use  these  to 
practise  the  method  of  budding  just  described. 

Top=working  of  Trees. — Tree  tops  may  be  changed  from 
one  variety  to  another.  If  an  apple  tree  bears  poor  fruit 
it  may  be  changed  to  bear  good  apples.  This  is  done  by 
top-working,  as  it  is  called.  Many  branches  are  cut  off  the 
poor  tree,  and  in  their  places  may  be  inserted  new  buds  or 
grafted  new  scions  of  the  variety  desired  (Fig.  19).     This 


Fig.  19. — Cleft-grafting  a  fruit  tree. 
The  tree  is  severely  cut  back  and  good 
scions  are  grafted  on.  The  boys  are  top- 
working  the  tree. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  WITHOUT  SEEDS    39 

work  is  often  done  in  June  with  scions  held  dormant  in  the 
cellar ;  or  it  may  be  done  in  August  with  scions  of  the  current 
year's  growth.  Top-working  is  accomplished  by  one  of  three 
methods :  budding,  or  tongue-grafting,  or  cleft-grafting.  The 
first  two  methods  have  been  described.  Cleft-grafting  is 
now  less  commonly  used.  (For  a  description  of  this  method 
reference  is  made  to  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins  157  and  408.) 

Tip=Iayering. — This  is  the  mo&t  common  way  of  propa- 
gating black  raspberries.  The  soil  is  cultivated  at  both  sides 
of  the  raspberry  row,  and  in  late  July  or  August  the  tips  of 
the  long  canes,  or  stems ;  are  bent  to  the  ground  and  slightly 
covered  with  soil  (Fig.  20a).     They  will  send  down  roots  and 


Fiu.  20g.— Tip-layering.     The  young  plants  have  taken  root. 

Fig.  206. — ^Vine-layering.     The  young  plants  are  ready  to  be  cut  apart. 


develop  new  plants.  The  canes  are  cut  loose  from  the  young 
plants,  which  may  then  be  transplanted  to  a  new  garden. 

Vine=layering. — Several  kinds  of  vines,  including  certain 
varieties  of  grapes,  are  propagated  by  layering  (Fig.  206). 
A  shallow  furrow  is  made  and  a  vine  is  laid  in  it  and  parts 
of  it  covered  with  soil  with  other  parts  exposed  to  the  light. 
Shoots  will  start  up  and  roots  will  be  formed.  The  new 
plants  may  be  cut  apart  with  a  spade;  they  are  then  ready 
to  transplant  to  desired  places. 

Mound=layering. — This  is  used  for  the  propagation  of 
gooseberries,  quinces,  and  many  ornamental  shrubs.  The 
earth  is  mounded  up  around  the  lower  branches,  which  will 
then  send  new  roots  into  the  soil  (Fig.  21).    The  following 


40 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Fig.  21. — Mound-layering.  The 
soil  is  mounded  among  the  shoots, 
and  new  roots  will  be  formed. 


fall  or  spring  the  plants  may  be  dug;  the  branches  with  their 
new  roots  will  form  new  plants;  then  they  are  cut  away 
from  the  parent  plant. 

Division  of  Plants. — Some  plants  naturally  form  roots 
from  the  lowest  parts  or  send  up  new  shoots  near  the  parent 

stalks.  After  the  plant  is  dug  it 
becomes  an  easy  matter  to  pull 
or  cut  the  parent  plant  into  a 
number  of  smaller  plants.  This 
method  of  propagation  is  used 
in  multiplying  purple  lilac,  rhu- 
barb, asparagus,  and  many 
shrubs  and  herbs.  . 

Cuttings. — There  are  a  few 
fruit  plants  and  many  others 
that  can  be  propagated  by  cuttings.  Currants,  gooseberries, 
and  several  kinds  of  grapes  may  be  multiplied  by  cuttings 
of  the  ripe  wood.  Blackberries  are  propagated  by  root- 
cuttings, — pieces  of  the  roots 
dropped  in  a  furrow  and  en- 
tirely covered.  Many  kinds 
of  houseplants  will  grow  from 
slips  or  cuttings  of  green 
wood ;  these  are  sometimes 
called  soft-wood  cuttings. 

Cuttings  of  ripe  wood,  six 
inches  or  more  in  length, 
should  be  taken  in  the  fall 
after  the  leaves  have  dropped. 
They  are  cat  from  the  new- 
est growth,  and  the  strongest 
shoots  are  selected  (Fig.  22). 
When  tied  into  bundles  they  should  be  properly  labelled  and 
stored  in  damp  sawdust  in  a  cold  cellar.  In  late  spring 
they  are  set  in  deep  furrows  in  rich  garden  soil  with  one 


Fig.  22. — ^Four  forms  of  grape-vine 
cuttings.  A,  single  eye  or  single  bud; 
B,  two  buds;  C,  heel  cutting;  D,  mallet 
cutting. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  WITHOUT  SEEDS    41 

or  two  buds  showing  above  ground.  The  soil  must  be 
pressed  firmly  about  them  (Fig.  23).  In  the  case  of  grape 
cuttings  one  bud  only  is  left  projecting  above  the  surface  of 
the  soil. 

Exercise. — Starting  Slips  at  Home  or  at  School. — In  a 
shallow  box  of  moist,  clean 
sand,  plant  a  munber  of  cut- 
tings of  several  house-plants. 
Keep  the  box  in  a  warm  room 
and  water  the  soil  frequently. 
These  slips  are  made  by 
taking  a  few  inches  of  the 
healthy  shoots  and  removing 
a  large  portion  of  the  older 
leaves.       For    this    exercise  i^     oo  ^  **•       r     ^ 

Fig.  23. — Cutting  of  red   currants, 
manv  forms  of  winter  house-      showing  depth  for  planting,  allowing  one 
•^  or  two  buds  to  protrude. 

plants  may  be  tried — begonia, 

carnation,  geranium,  fuchsia.  After  the  sHps  have  formed 
roots  in  the  sand,  they  may  be  transplanted  to  rich  soil  in 
well-drained  pots  or  boxes. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  are  the  two  general  plans  by  which  plants  naturally  prop- 
agate themselves? 

2.  Name  four  forms  of  bud  propagation  used  by  nurserymen. 

3.  Describe  the  starting  of  stocks  for  the  budding  or  grafting  of 
young  apple  trees. 

4.  Tell  when  to  take  scions  and  how  to  store  them  for  winter  root- 
grafting. 

5.  When  are  root-grafts  set  out?     and  how? 

6.  Describe  the  details  of  root-grafting. 

7.  What  is  the  cambium  layer?    Where  is  it? 

8.  Tell  how  to  make  grafting  wax  and  how  to  wax  knitting  cotton. 

9.  What  are  used  for  stocks  and  for  scions  in  the  budding  of  young 
apple  trees? 

10.  At  what  two  times  of  year  is  apple  budding  done? 

11.  Tell  how  peach  and  plum  stocks  are  started. 

12.  When  are  peach  scions  cut  from  the  trees?    When  is  the  budding 
usually  done? 

13.  What  is  the  purpose  of  top-working  old  trees? 

14.  How  is  this  done? 


42  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

15.  Describe  tiplayering  of  black  raspberries. 

16.  Describe  vine-layering  for  grapes. 

17.  What  is  mound-Iayermg? 

18.  Describe  the  cutting,  storing,  and  planting  of  grape  or  currant 
cuttings. 

19.  What  plants  may  be  propagated  by  soft-wood  cuttings? 

References.— U.  S.  Farmers' Bulletins:  113,  The  Apple  and  How  to 
Grow  it;  157,  The  Propagation  of  Plants;  408,  School  Exercises  in 
Plant  Production  ;  423,  Forest  Nurseries  for  Schools. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
HOW  SOILS  ARE  FORMED. 

The  soil  is  one  of  those  common  things  most  of  us  think 
very  Httle  about.  We  see  it  every  day,  we  walk  on  it,  we 
eat  and  wear  its  products,  but  we  very  seldom  give  it  a 
thought.  It  may  even  surprise  some  of  us  to  know  that  we 
get  from  the  soil  not  only  our  food,  our  houses  and  our  cloth- 
ing, but  that  all  animal  life  comes  indirectly  from  the  soil. 
For  every  living  thing  comes  originally  from  two  primary 
sources,  the  air  and  the  soil.  All  elements  or  substances 
found  in  plants  or  animals  are  from  either  the  soil  or  the  air. 

The  foods  which  plants  secure  from  the  air  are  too  abun- 
dant to  ever  become  exhausted  by  large  farm  crops.  No 
human  efforts  are  required  to  make  them  available  to  plants, 
except  for  the  securing  of  nitrogen  from  air,  when  ingculation 
with  certain  bacteria  may  be  necessary.  The  foods  taken 
from  the  soil  on  the  other  hand  are  much  less  available,  and 
the  ability  of  plants  to  secure  them  may  depend  very  largely 
on  the  efforts  of  the  farmer.  It  is  necessary  for  the  farmer 
first  of  all  to  study  his  soil  to  see  how  he  can  make  its  plant- 
food  most  available. 

What  Soil  is. — That  part  of  the  earth's  surface  which 
can  be  tilled,  and  in  which  plants  grow,  is  called  soil.  It  is 
the  loose,  highly  decomposed  layer  of  mineral  matter  result- 


HOW  SOILS  ARE  FORMED 


43 


ing,  primarily,  from  rock  decay,  which  furnishes  food  and 
foothold  for  plant  and  animal  life. 

Soil  Builders. — Soil  is  derived  from  two  main  classes 
of  substances:  rock  and  organic  matter.  Rocks  crumble 
into  fine  particles.  They  are  gradually  being  changed  into 
soil.  Plants  and  animals  decay  to  form  the  organic  matter 
or  humus  in  the  soil.  The  humus  present  in  our  fields  is 
chiefly  of  vegetable  origin. 


Fig.  21. 


fence.      (Plant  Industty.) 


lere  it  has  nearly  covered  the 


How  Soils  are  Formed. — Certain  forces  are  constantly 
at  work  changing  rock  into  soil  and  making  soil  particles 
finer.  These  forces  are:  (1)  air;  (2)  water;  (3)  temperature; 
(4)  plants;  (5)  burrowing  animals;  and  (6)  minute  plant 
and  animal  organisms.  These  forces  act  both  physically  and 
chemically. 

Exercise. — Soil  Forming. — Find  places  near  the  school 
or  at  home  where  any  of  the  agencies  mentioned  are  at  work 
forming  soil.  Tell  of  the  places  and  what  you  have  seen. 
Can  you  find  places  where  water  has  carried  soil?  How  are 
the  little  gulleys  formed  in  hillsides?  Where  is  the  soil 
carried  to?    , 


44 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


The  Action  of  Air  and  Temperature  Changes. — The  action 
of  the  air  and  the  changes  in  temperature,  which  together  we 
call  weathering,  is  of  many  kinds.  The  heat  of  the  sun  causes 
the  rock  to  expand.  As  all  of  the  substances  which  make  up 
a  rock  do  not  expand  the  sa,me  amount,  the  rock  breaks  and 
the  particles  flake  off  the  surface.  In  regions  where  the  soil 
is  not  protected  by  vegetation  the  wind  becomes  an  import- 
ant soil  former  (Fig.  24).  The  particles  of  soil  are  caught  up 
by  the  wind  and  hurled  against  rocks  and  against  cliffs,  and 
grind  the  surface  of  the  rocks  and  undermine  the  cliffs.    This 


Fig.  25o. — A  little  stream  falling  many  feet  will  wear  away  the  hardest  rock_ 
The  fine  particles  help  to  make  up  the  soil.      (Plant  Industry.) 

Fig.  256. — A  muddy  water-fall.     Soil  is  carried  by  swift  current  to  the  low  land. 

little  agent  does  a  really  large  work.  Then  there  is  a  chemical 
action  of  the  air,  in  which  certain  substances  in  the  air,  as 
oxygen  and  carbonic  acid,  unite  with  certain  substances  in 
the  rock  and  cause  it  to  decompose.  Such  an  action  of  the 
air  is  termed  oxidation  and  is  a  slow  burning  or  decay. 

A  good  example  of  weathering  may  be  observed  in  the 
rapid  crumbling  of  shale  on  exposure  to  the  air.  In  such 
cases  the  air,  temperature,  and  water  each  play  an  important 
part. 

Exercise.  —  The  Action  of  Air  on  Iron.  —  A  familiar 


HOW  SOILS  ARE  FORMED 


45 


illustration  of  oxidation  is  seen  when  iron  is  exposed  to  the 
air;  the  red  rust  that  forms  is  an  oxide  of  iron — a  substance 
very  different  from  the  iron  itself.  To  test  for  ourselves 
the  action  of  air  on  iron  we  may  take  a  piece  of  bright  iron 
or  steel,  as  the  blade  of  a  knife.  Cover  one  end  with  hnseed 
oil  or  wagon  grease,  and  leave  the  other  end  exposed  to  the 
action  of  rain  and  air  for  a  few  days.  Notice  the  effect  on 
the  exposed  part.  What  lesson  on  the  care  of  plows  and 
other  farm  tools  may  we  learn  from  this? 


Fio.  26. — ^Abroad  valley  of  rich  alluvial  soil,      i  In-  -oil  at  ^ome  time  was  chiefly 
part  of  the  surrounding,  hills.     (Plant  Industry.) 

Water  is  the  most  powerful  agent  in  decomposing  or 
breaking  down  rock  (Fig.  25a).  Its  action,  especially  in  dis- 
solving rocks,  is  very  important.  Nearly  all  rocks  are  more 
or  less  affected  by  this  action,  and  some,  as  limestone,  are 
eEisily  affected. 

W^ater  breaks  up  rock  by  freezing.  Most  rocks  contain 
cracks  or  openings  into  which  the  water  readily  flows;  when 
the  water  freezes,  it  expands  and  forces  the  rock  apart. 
SoUd  rock  is  thus  gradually  broken  to  pieces  by  the  freezing 


46 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


and  thawing  of  water  in  it.  This  force  is  especially  active 
in  cold  climates. 

Exercise. — To  Show  the  Action  of  Freezing  Water  — -Fill 
a  small  bottle  with  water  and  place  it  where  the  water  will 
freeze.  The  bottle  will  probably  be  broken  by  the  expansion 
due  to  the  change  in  temperature. 

Water  also  makes  the  rock  particles  finer.  After  rains 
the  flowing  of  water  grinds  the  fragments  together.  The 
force  of  running  water  is  continually  wearing  them  smaller 
(Fig.  256) .  The  finest  particles  are  first  carried  away  by  the 
water  to.  valleys  below  (Figs.  26  and  27). 


Fig.  27. — A  rocky  hill  changing  into  soil.    The  soil  is  gradually  carried  to  the  valley 
by  rains  and  mountain  streams.     (Plant  Industry.) 

Water  in  the  form  of  glacial  ice,  carrying  sand  and  boul- 
ders frozen  into  the  under  side,  wears  down  the  rocks  over 
which  it  passes  and  carries  the  material  with  it  (Fig.  28). 

The  effects  of  plants  in  the  rotting  of  rocks  are  of  two 
kinds:  (1)  The  roots  grow  into  the  crevices  found  in  rocks. 
This  in  time  forces  the  rock  particles  apart  (Fig.  29). 
Roots  of  trees  often  lift  large  rocks  and  cause  them  to  crack 
by  their  own  weight.  This  aids  the  rocks  to  crumble  into 
soil  grains.     (2)  When  the  plants  decay  acids  are  formed, 


HOW  SOILS  ARE  FORMED 


47 


that  help  the  water  to  soften  or  dissolve  the  rocks.  Every 
one  has  seen  rocks  covered  with  lichens  and  mosses.  When 
these  are  taken  away  one  can  often  see  where  the  rocks 
have  been  eaten  into  by  the  small  plants,  due  to  the  action 
described.  As  this  process  of  growth  and  decay  continues  for 
ages,  the  soil  is  gradually  improved  until  it  will  produce 
plants  useful  to  man. 


Fio.  28. — View  of  Victoria  glacier,  several  miles  in  length.  S,  mountain  snow; 
D,  dirt  and  broken  rock  carried  by  the  moving  snow  and  ice;  L,  broken  rock  where 
the  moving  glacier  rubs  the  bank  or  side  of  the  valley;  C,  central  line  of  dirt  and 
rocks  brought  by  the  edges  of  two  moving  streams  of  ice  and  snow;  T,  terminus  or 
end  of  the  glacier  where  the  sun  melts  the  snow  and  leaves  the  rock  and  soil.  The 
finest  soil  is  carried  by  running  water  to  the  broad  field  farther  down  the  valley. 


How  Animals  Help. — Burrowing  animals,  such  as  the 
ground  squirrel  and  the  prairie  dog,  earthworms  and  insects 
living  in  the  ground,  as  well  as  rabbits,  gophers,  and  wolves, 
aid  in  preparing  the  soil  for  the  growth  of  plants.  They 
often  burrow  deep  into  the  ground;  the  openings  aid  in  free 
movement  of  air  and  water,  and  roots  can  enter  the  soil  more 


48 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


easily.  The  animals  also  drag  into  their  homes  nesting  mate- 
rials and  other  vegetable  matter.  When  this  decays  it  aids 
in  forming  fertile  soil. 

How  Soils  are  Moved. — The  same  forces  that  form  soil 
also  carry  it  away.  Soil  is  almost  constantly  moving  from 
high  lands  to  low  lands.  It  is  deepest  in  the  valley,  and 
thinnest  at  the  top  of  the  hill.    Great  furrows  are  formed  in 

the  hillsides  after  heavy  rains. 
The  swollen  and  muddy 
streams  carry  the  soil  to  lower 
parts  of  the  land.  When 
rivers  overflow,  they  always 
leave  a  deposit  of  soil  which 
was  carried  by  the  water. 

Transported  soil  is  any  soil 
moved  from  the  place  where  it 
was  formed.     It  is  described 
by  different  names  or  terms, 
depending  on  the  means  by 
which  it  was  transported;  and 
these  different  means  of  trans- 
portation leave  the  soil  in  very 
different  condition  as  regards 
its  general  nature  and  appear- 
ance and  use  for  growing  crops. 
Go  out  into  a  plowed  field 
after   a   heavy  rain   and   see 
where  Httle  gulleys  have  been  worn.     Follow  one  of  these 
and  see  how  much  soil  was  carried  by  the  water  that  rao 
off.    Notice  the  size  of  the  particles  that  were  carried. 

Soil  deposited  by  water  is  called  alluvial.  It  is  found 
in  valleys  and  river-beds,  beds  of  old  lakes,  ponds  and 
marshes.     (Fig.  26.) 

Soil  deposited  from  ice  is  called  drift  soil.  It  has  been 
formed  by  the  action  of  glaciers,  which  are  .large  bodies  of 


^  m 


Fig.  29  .—A  large  rock  split  by  the 
groM-th  of  a  tree  near  Lansing,  Mich. 


J^K 


HOW  SOILS  ABE  FORMED  49 

ice  moving  like  rivers,  carrying  quantities  of  earth  and 
rocks.  The  results  of  ancient  glacial  action  are  found  in 
many  places.  Rocks  with  deep  scratches  show  the  wearing 
and  grinding  effects  of  the  moving  masses  of  ice.  Drift  or 
glacial  soil  is  easily  recognized  by  the  presence  of  rounded 
rocks  or  boulders.  It  is  usually  fertile  because  of  the  variety 
of  mineral  substances  brought  from  far  and  near.  Much 
drift  soil  is  found  throughout  the  northern  states  and  Canada, 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Two  other  kinds  of  transported  soil  should  be  studied. 
One,  known  as  colluvial  soil,  occurs  on  mountain  slopes  and 
steep  hillsides,  and  is  the  mixed  mass  of  soil  and  rocks  brought 
down  by  avalanches  and  landslides.  Such  soil  is  not  generally 
in  condition  to  grow  good  crops.  The  other,  known  as  wind- 
drifted  or  aeolian  soil,  is  found  in  arid  or  semi-arid  regions, 
that  is,  in  places  where  there  is  very  Uttle  rain-fall  and  the 
soil  is  dry,  and  there  is  little  vegetation  to  hold  the  soil. 
This  soil  is  carried  by  the  winds  and  is  deposited  in  dunes 
or  drifts  like  snow.  These  dunes  sometimes  cover  cultivated 
fields,  forests,  and  even  villages.  As  this  soil  is  shifting, 
plants  frequently  do  not  have  an  opportunity  to  grow  and 
hold  it.     (Fig.  24.) 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  is  soil? 

2.  From  what  is  soil  made  ? 

3.  Name  four  forces  which  are  making  soil. 

4.  How  does  the  air  help  to  make  si^il  ? 

5.  Tell  of  the  influences  of  temperature  in  crumbling  rocks. 

6.  Tell  of  the  ways  in  which  water  helps  to  crumble  rocks. 

7.  Tell  where  and  when  you  have  seen  running  water  carrying 
fine  soil  or  mud. 

8.  In  what  kinds  of  places  is  this  mud  deposited  ? 

9.  Do  plants  help  to  form  soil  ?    How  ? 

10.  In  what  ways  do  animals  help  to  make  soil  useful  ? 

11.  What  is  transported  soil? 

12.  Describe  the  several  kinds,  and  tell  where  they  are  likely  to  be 
foimd. 

Reference. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  421,  Control  of  Blowing 
Soils. 


07tm^ 


50  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


CHAPTER   V. 
KINDS  OF  SOILS— THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Soils  used  in  the  production  of  crops  are  of  many  kinds. 
Some  of  these  differ  widely  from  each  other  in  their  physical 
nature  and  in  their  ability  to  produce  good  return  to  the 
owner.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  point  out  the 
characteristics  of  the  most  important  types  of  soil. 

Kinds  of  Soil. — Soil  may  be  divided  into  four  natural 
classes — sandy,  loamy,  clayey,  and  peaty — according  to  the 
proportion  of  sand,  clay,  and  vegetable  matter  which  it  con- 
tains. Between  these  groups  or  classes  we  may  have  very 
many  others,  depending  on  the  combinations  of  these  types 
and  the  sizes  of  the  soil  particles. 

A  loam  is  a  soil  intermediate  between  sand  and  clay. 

A  marly  soil  is  a  combination  of  clay  and  fine  lime  mate- 
rial. 

Silt  is  a  soil  whose  particles  are  slightly  larger  than  clay 
particles  but  finer  than  sand. 

We  should  mention  also  limestone  soils.  These  result  from 
the  crumbling  of  limestone  (Fig.  30). 

Sandy  Soil. — Sand  is  formed  from  sandstone.  It  does 
not  produce  large  crops,  for  it  is  poor  in  plant-food  and 
moisture.  A  soil  made  of  sand  only  would  need  to  be  changed 
a  great  deal  to  be  of  any  use  in  farming,  as  it  would  produce 
no  crops  in  its  natural  condition.  Soil  with  much  sand  in  it 
is  light  and  open  and  allows  the  entrance  of  air,  and  it  can 
absorb  and  hold  little  moisture.  Sandy  soil  is  so  loosely 
held  together  that  water  and  air  pass  through  it  readily. 
Crops  on  such  land  become  parched  if  the  weather  is  hot  and 
dry. 

This  type  of  soil  dries  quickly  even  when  the  season 
is  wet.    Then  large  crops  may  be  grown  better  on  sandy  soil 


KINDS  OF  SOILS— THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS    51 


than  on  clay,  if  enough  plant  food  is  provided.  Compact 
and  sticky  soils  produce  poor  crops  in  wet  seasons.  The 
farmer  finds  it  easy  to  plow  and  cultivate  a  sandy  field.  It 
is  adapted  to  quick-growing  crops,  such  as  early  vegetables; 
and  sweet  potatoes  do  well  on  such  a  soil.  It  may  be  culti- 
vated without  injury  when  wet.  When  it  lies  over  clay 
under-soil  or  subsoil  it  may  have  a  high  degree  of  fertility. 


'4  .V'-r''^>-'"^'v^ 


^^%k: 


:-^  .  ^^2«<i, 


Fig.  30. — Peach  trees  in  rocky  soil.  After  the  soil  is  plowed,  the  rains  soon  wash 
the  fine  soil  away  through  the  top  of  the  rocks  and  leave  the  surface  as  shown  in  the 
picture.  The  roots  of  trees  are  in  the  finer  parts  of  the  soil  and  the  growth  is  good. 
(Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 

Clay  Soil. — Clay  soil  is  much  more  finely  divided  than 
sand.  When  wet  it  is  plastic  and  sticky.  The  latter  property 
makes  it  useful  for  making  bricks  and  tiles.  Some  farm  soils 
are  largely  clay;  but  clay  alone  does  not  make  a  good  farm 
soil  and  its  plant-food  is  not  readily  available. 

Soil  composed  of  as  much  as  forty  per  cent  of  clay  may 
be  good  farm  soil,  and  may  be  well  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  grains  and  grasses.  It  should  not  have  over  fifty  per  cent 
of  clay  present.    The  finely  divided  particles  of  clay  adhere 


52  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

so  closely  as  to  make  the  access  and  circulation  of  air,  heat, 
and  moisture  difficult;  the  soil  is,  therefore,  cold  and  heavy. 
It  is  hard  to  work,  and,  unless  well  drained,  crops  are  likely 
to  suffer  both  in  wet  and  in  dry  seasons;  in  wet  seasons 
because  the  moistiu-e  and  air  do  not  pass  through  it  readily 
and  the  surplus  water  does  not  drain  away,  and  in  dry  sea- 
sons because  the  land  becomes  so  hard  as  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  roots,  and  the  small  amount  of  moisture  in  the 
soil  is  not  available  to  plants  because  it  does  not  readily 
circulate. 

Clay  and  Sandy  Soil  Compared. — Clay  soil  is  almost  the 
opposite  of  sandy  soil,  in  many  respects.  Grains  and  larger 
masses  of  sand  do  not  stick  together;  if  wet  and  moulded  in 
the  hand,  they  will  soon  fall  apart.  Clay  may  be  moulded 
into  any  shape,  and  is  sometimes  used  for  making  pottery 
because  the  particles  stick  together  when  moist.  Sand, 
being  open  and  porous,  quickly  loses  moisture  and  plant- 
food.  Clay  is  so  compact  that  it  retains  moisture  and  plant- 
food.  Sand  admits  heated  air  and  soon  becomes  dry  and 
warm;  clay  admits  air  more  slowly  and  remains  wet  and  cold. 
Because  of  these  differences  which  make  sandy  soil  easy  to 
work  and  clay  soil  hard  to  work,  sandy  soil  is  said  to  be  light 
and  clay  soil  heavy,  while  in  weight  a  quart  cup  full  of  sandy 
soil  is  really  heavier  than  the  same  amount  of  clay  soil. 
Both  are  valuable  farm  soils  when  supplied  with  enough 
plant-food  and  vegetable  mould,  or  humus. 

Exercise. — To  Show  the  Difference  between  Sand  and 
Clay. — Use  rather  piu-e  sand  and  pure  clay.  Make  a  wet 
ball  of  each  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  Place  the  two  wet  masses 
on  a  board  to  dry.  When  dry,  examine  and  note  the  dif- 
ferences. Which  ball  dried  more  quickly?  Which  is  harder 
to  work  when  dry? 

Exercise. — To  Compare  the  Water-holding  Power  of 
Sand  J  Clay,  and  Loam. — In  three  boxes  about  the  size  of 
cigar  boxes  place  respectively  some  sand, .  clay,  and  black 


KINDS  OF  SOILS— THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS    53 

loam,  which  we  have  learned  is  intermediate  between  sand 
and  clay.  Wet  all  of  them  equally.  Place  the  boxes  in  the 
free  air  or  sun  and  allow  them  to  dry.  Which  soil  loses  its 
moisture  first?    Which  last? 

Peat  or  vegetable  matter  makes  up  a  large  part  of  some 
soils,  particularly  in  low  places.  The  vegetable  matter  may 
be  more  or  less  decayed,  and  is  often  called  peat.  It  is  found 
in  bogs  and  marshes  and  other  wet  places.  When  the  peat 
has  nearly  all  decomposed  it  is  called  muck.  If  peat  and  muck 
soils  are  well  drained  and  are  supplied  with  enough  Ume,  they 
are  very  productive.  They  are  often  used  for  such  market- 
garden  crops  as  cabbage,  onions,  celery,  and  cauliflower. 

Humus. — Partly  decayed  vegetable  matter  in  soil  is  called 
humus.  It  has  a  blackish  color.  In  newly  cleared  farm  soil 
it  is  derived  from  the  dead  roots  and  leaves  of  a  former  vege- 
tation. Leaf  mould  found  in  forests  is  largely  humus.  On 
farms  it  is  secured  by  plowing  under  waste  materials  such  as 
weeds,  stubble,  roots,  vines,  and  leaves.  Farm  manure  is 
valuable  for  this  purpose.  Special  crops  are  often  grown  to 
be  plowed  under,  and  when  so  used  are  called  green  manure. 
When  these  rot  in  the  soil,  humus  is  formed. 

Humus  is  very  useful  in  all  soils.  It  improves  a  sandy 
soil  because  it  increases  its  power  to  take  and  hold  moisture, 
supplies  it  with  plant-food,  and  thus  increases  its  productiv- 
ity. It  will  absorb  and  retain  more  moisture  than  any  other 
part  of  the  soil.  It  improves  clay  soil  by  loosening  it,  thus 
helping  the  circulation  of  air  and  moisture.  It  is  less  likely 
to  clod  and  crust.  Humus  is  the  main  immediate  source  of 
nitrogen,  so  necessary  in  the  growth  of  all  farm  crops.  In 
the  formation  of  humus  other  plant-foods  are  set  free, — but 
best  of  all  is  its  improvement  of  the  structure  or  texture  of 
the  soil,  resulting  in  better  drainage,  better  ventilation,  and 
deeper  root  growth. 

Lime  in  Soil. — ^When  lime  is  found  in  soil  it  is  usually  in 
the  form  of  particles  of  limestone  or  marble,  but  it  may  be 


54  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

in  solution  in  the  soil  water.  It  is  a  valuable  substance  in 
soil.  It  furnishes  the  important  plant-food,  calcium.  Lime- 
stone crumbles  or  dissolves  easily  and  helps  to  make  avail- 
able other  plant-foods  in  the  soil.  The  lime  aids  in  the  decay 
of  vegetable  matter  and  in  the  formation  of  nitrates  from 
decaying  vegetable  matter.  It  improves  the  physical  con- 
dition of  soil;  its  presence  helps  to  make  heavy  clay  soil  loose 
and  more  easily  worked  and  to  facilitate  the  passage  of 
water  and  air  through  it.  In  small  quantities  it  improves 
sandy  soil  by  causing  the  particles  to  adhere  more  closely  to 
each  other,  and  consequently,  to  hold  moisture  better.  It 
prevents  harm  from  acids  and  certain  other  poisonous  com- 
pounds in  soil.  It  lessens  the  injury  from  certain  plant 
diseases  that  are  transmitted  through  the  soil.  Soil  contain- 
ing an  abundance  of  hme  is  usually  of  good  character.  It  is 
easy  to  work  and  should  be  well  adapted  to  grains  and  fruits. 

While  lime  is  very  valuable  in  the  soil,  it  is  possible  for 
it  to  become  harmful.  Too  much  of  it  in  sandy  soil  or  grav- 
elly soil  is  more  harmful  than  in  clay  soils.  It  may  cause 
other  plant-foods  to  be  liberated  faster  than  they  can  be 
used  by  the  crop,  and  they  will  be  wasted.  It  may  cause  the 
vegetable  matter  or  humus  to  decay  too  fast;  it  may  reduce 
the  yield  of  certain  crops,  as  cranberries,  and  watermelons 
which  prefer  acid  soil. 

A  loam  is  a  soil  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay 
and  containing  humus.  If  two-thirds  of  the  mixture  is  sand 
it  is  called  a  sandy  loam.  If  one-half  of  the  soil  is  clay  it  is 
called  a  heavy  clay  loam.  Soils  between  these  two  extremes 
are  called  loams  or  medium  loams.  When  gravel  or  coarse 
sand  and  lime  are  present  in  considerable  amounts,  we  have 
gravelly  or  limy  loam.  Loam  soil  is  the  best  for  most  farm 
purposes.  Sand,  clay,  and  humus  are  improved  as  they 
become  mixed  together. 

Medium  loams  are  the  best  soils  for  farming  if  there  is 
a  large  amount  of  humus  present.     The  farmer  says,  'Hhey 


KINDS  OF  SOILS— THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS    55 

work  up  well."  They  are  usually  not  too  wet  nor  too  dry. 
They  do  not  bake  and  crack  so  badly  as  the  heavy  clay  soils 
do.  Clods  are  less  hkely  to  form.  They  hold  moisture  better 
than  light  sandy  soils.  Corn,  cotton,  potatoes,  fruits,  vege- 
tables, grains,  and  grasses  all  do  well  on  the  medium  loams. 
Texture  of  Soil. — The  texture  of  soil  is  determined  by  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  particles  of  which  it  is  composed  and 
the  way  in  which  these  particles  are  grouped  in  kernels  or 
crumbs  or  larger  masses.    The  texture  determines  to  a  large 


Fig.  31. 


-Soils  of  different  texture.     The  coarse  or  open  te.xture  may  be  improved 
by  tillage  and  by  packing  with  roller  or  planker. 


extent  the  agricultural  value  of  soil  (Fig.  31).  It  is  a  fac- 
tor to  consider  when  studying  the  composition  of  soil,  as  it 
determines  largely  the  capacity  of  soil  to  retain  such  foods  as 
may  become  available  for  plants. 

Soil  such  as  sand  is  open  in  texture  and  freely  admits 
water,  which  quickly  passes  downward,  carrying  soil  fertil- 
ity with  it.  Open  soil  is  more  likely  to  lose  its  plant  food 
than  a  soil  that  is  fairly  close  in  texture.  Clay  loams,  in  re- 
taining water,  also  retain  their  plant-food  better.  We  call 
them  close  in  texture.  An  open  texture  also  allows  too  rapid 
decay  of  vegetable  matter.  On  the  other  hand,  a  very  com- 
pact soil  such  as  clay  is  undesirable.  When  there  is  rain  it 
puddles,  and  neither  air  nor  water  can  enter  and  circulate. 


56  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

When  it  dries  it  becomes  very  hard  and  unworkable.  A  good 
farm  soil  should  be  between  these  two  conditions, — open 
enough  to  permit  the  proper  entrance  and  movement  of  air 
and  water,  and  yet  compact  enough  to  prevent  the  washing 
out  of  plant-food. 

Farm  Soil. — The  best  farm  soil  does  not  belong  strictly 
to  any  of  these  classes  already  described,  but  is  one  which  is 
a  mixture  of  sand,  clay,  and  humus  in  certain  proportions. 
With  reference  to  the  proportions  of  sand  and  clay  present, 
the  useful  farm  and  garden  soils  may  be  divided  into  three 
general  classes, — sandy  loam,  medium  loam,  and  clay  loam 

(Fig.  31).  A  perfect  soil  is 
<;^=^%^;^^  one  whose  physical  nature 

and  chemical  composition 
make  it  best  adapted  for 
the  purpose  or  crop  in- 
tended. It  contains  just 
enough  sand  to  enable  it  to 

Fig.  32, — A  subsoil  plow  has  a  long         i  i        •  i 

shank.  It  is  used  in  the  bottom  of  furrows  abSOrb  air  and  mOlSturC  lU 
behind  a  turning  plow  where  the  subsoil  . 

is  too  compact.  It  stirs  the  subsoil  but  prOpCr  aiUOUUtS  and  tO 
does  not  bring  it  to  the  surface.  ^        •,  ^  -i 

make  it  warm  and  easily 
worked.  It  contains  enough  clay  to  keep  it  from  getting  too 
warm  and  to  prevent  too  rapid  loss  of  water.  Lime  must 
be  present  to  perform  its  several  duties.  Humus  is  there  to 
control  the  amounts  of  moisture  and  air,  to  furnish  nitrogen, 
and  to  help  produce  valuable  chemical  changes  in  the  soil. 
There  are  a  few.. other  conditions  necessary  to  provide  suffi- 
cient plant-food. 

Perfect  soils  are  hard  to  find.  They  are  also  hard  to  make 
in  any  of  the  known  ways  of  soil-improvement.  We  usually 
can  make  slight  improvements  in  the  soils  found  in  nature. 
Since  this  is  true  we  must  select  crops  for  the  farm  which  are 
best  adapted  to  the  soil  found  there. 

The  subsoil  lies  under  the  soil,  which  generally  occupies 
the  surface  six  to  twelve  inches.    There  are  several  differ- 


KINDS  OF  SOILS— THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS    57 

ences  between  soil  and  subsoil:  The  soil  is  usually  darker 
in  color  because  it  contains  more  organic  or  vegetable  matter. 
It  is  more  easily  worked  and  less  compact  than  the  subsoil 
(Fig.  32).  Air  and  moisture  usually  circulate  in  the  surface 
soil  better,  and  its  plant-food  is  more  available.  The  subsoil 
serves  as  a  storehouse  for  moisture  and  with  some  plants  is 
penetrated  by  the  roots.  Its  character  materially  affects 
the  crops  grown  on  the  soil.  When  the  underlying  rocks 
have  rotted  they  make  the  subsoil.  When  the  subsoils  have 
rotted  they  are  more  of  the  nature  of  the  surface  soil. 


lift  A 

►- 

1 

^^3^^        #^^^1 

■y^     ^1 

^^^^^^^n      '^^^           ^i:^  ^^li^^l 

^9iu^^i^H 

\  J^^|^fl|[^BI 

H^g 

Fig.  33, — Teachers  and  students  taking  soU  samples  and  studying  soil, 
(Agricultural  Education.) 

Names  of  Soils. — In  the  following  list  the  soils  are  ar- 
ranged with  reference  to  the  fine  and  coarse  particles  they 
contain:  Clay,  heavy  clay  loam,  clay  loam,  loam,  sandy 
loam,  light  sandy  loam,  fine  sand,  medium  sand,  coarse  sand, 
gravel. 

The  Ust  omits  peat  and  other  organic  matter.  If  humus 
is  present  in  these  they  are  usually  of  a  dark  color  or  black. 
Lime  also  darkens  the  color  of  soils  in  presence  of  vegetable 
matter.    Otherwise  the  color  will  vary  a  great  deal. 


58  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Exercise. — To  Show  Kinds  of  Soil  and  Subsoil. — Have 
pupils  bring  to  school  in  small  boxes  or  tin  cans  samples  of 
different  kinds  of  soil  and  subsoil  of  the  neighborhood 
(Fig.  33).  The  pupils  should  classify  and  name  these. 
Much  benefit  may  come  by  discussing  the  relative  value 
of  these  types  of  soil  and  subsoil. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Name  as  many  different  kinds  of  soil  as  you  can. 

2.  How  many  of  these  have  you  seen?    Where? 

^.  What  kind  of  rock  forms  sand  when  crumbled  ? 

4.  In  what  ways  is  clay  soil  better  than  sandy  soil  ? 

5.  In  what  ways  is  sandy  soil  better  than  clay  soil  ? 

6.  Name  several  ways  in  which  lime  or  limy  substances  are  help- 
ful to  soil. 

7.  What  is  humus? 

8.  How  does  humus  improve  sandy  soil?  How  does  it  improve 
clay  soil  ? 

9.  Describe  a  good  farm  soil. 

10.  How  may  the  subsoil  differ  from  the  surface  soil  ? 

References. — Physical  Geographies  will  be  helpful  in  the  further 
study  of  the  topics  taken  up  in  the  chapters  on  Soils.  Let  the  most 
advanced  pupils  in  the  class  read  the  chapters  on  soil  movement  in  a 
good  Physical  Geography  and  report  to  the  class. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
SOIL  MOISTURE. 


Water  in  Soils. — Many  soils  contain  too  much  or  too 
little  water.  The  water  in  soils  may  be  in  three  conditions: 
(a)  Free  water,  or  that  which  would  flow  into  a  hole  dug  for 
a  post  or  telephone  pole.  (6)  Capillary  water,  or  that  which 
tends  to  fill  the  small  spaces  between  fine  particles  of  soil, 
as  the  oil  of  a  lamp  fills  the  spaces  in  the  wick  above  the  free 
oil  in  the  lamp.  This  is  called  also  coarse  film  or  simply  film 
moisture,  (c)  Fine  film  water,  or  that  which  clings  to  the 
surface  of  each  small  bit  of  soil  even  when  it  is  as  dry  as  road 
dust.    This  is  called  also  hygroscopic  moisture,.    If  too  much 


SOIL  MOISTURE  59 

water  is  present,  proper  drainage  may  help;  if  too  little,  by 
adding  water  or  by  adding  vegetable  matter  and  barn  manure, 
to  aid  the  soil  in  retaining  water,  the  crops  will  be  improved. 
Soils  with  good  texture  are  seldom  too  wet  or  too  dry.  The 
average  rainfall  of  a  certain  region  may  be  enough,  but  the 
best  growth  is  impossible  if  the  rain  is  not  well  distributed 
through  the  growing  season. 

Exercise.  —  Three  Conditions  of  Water  in  Soils,  —  Fill 
a  glass  jar  or  drinking  glass  with  some  fine  sand  or  other 
loose  soil  and  pour  in  water  until  half  full  of  free  water. 
Above  the  free  water  the  soil  wi  11  become  wet  with  capillary 
water.  By  stirring  the  top  soil  it  will  become  dust  Hke  or 
some  dust  may  be  spread  on  to  p.  The  dust,  though  perfectly 
dry  in  appearance,  is  supplied  with  fine  film  water. 

Just  after  heavy  rainfalls  the  free  water  is  close  to  the 
surface,  and  falls  lower  at  drier  times. 

Capillary  Moisture. — Capillary  water  clings  to  the  sur- 
faces of  the  soil  particles  and  cannot  be  seen  as  free  water  can. 
When  a  soil  has  all  the  capillary  water  it  will  hold,  its  presence 
can  be  felt  with  the  fingers.  The  color  is  darker  than  the 
same  soil  when  dried  in  the  air. 

Take  a  pound  of  soil  fresh  from  the  garden  and  spread  it 
out  on  a  paper  to  dry.  The  next  day  weigh  it  and  determine 
how  much  capillary  moisture  it  has  lost. 

Fine  Film  or  Hygroscopic  Moisture. — Dry  dust  from  a 
road  contains  a  very  fine  film  of  moisture  on  each  soil  grain. 
This  is  too  fine  to  be  seen.  Put  some  road  dust  in  the  bottom 
of  a  glass  tube  or  vial  and  heat  it  gently.  Moisture  will  be 
seen  collecting  in  the  top  of  the  tube.  This  was  held  in  the 
form  of  fine  films  on  the  soil  grains  before  they  were  heated. 

Capillary  Moisture  Most  Useful. — The  roots  of  plants 
take  up  capillary  moisture.  This  in  turn  is  supplied  from 
the  bed  of  free  water  deeper  in  the  soil.  Farm  crops  cannot 
make  direct  use  of  free  water.  Plants  need  air  in  the  soil 
about  the  roots.    Free  water  would  exclude  the  soil-air,  and 


60  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

also  prevent  the  rise  of  temperature.  Fine  film  moisture 
probably  does  not  aid  plants  in  their  growth,  but  will  help 
to  maintain  hfe  at  the  time  of  great  drought.  Slow-growing 
plants,  such  as  those  found  in  deserts,  may  be  kept  alive  by 
the  presence  of  fine  film  moisture. 

Soil  Moisture  Used  by  Plants. — Plants  use  moisture 
while  growing.  One  ton  of  a  dry  corn  crop  may  use  up  300 
to  600  tons  of  soil  moisture  during  its  growth.  The  moisture 
while  in  the  soil  dissolves  plant-food  which  it  finds  there. 
The  plants  take  up  this  food  in  the  water  they  drink  through 
the  roots.  This  all  passes  up  to  the  leaves  of  the  plant  and 
the  surplus  water  is  lost  by  evaporation  into  the  air. 

How  Capillary  Moisture  Moves. — ^When  grains  of  soil 
are  wet  with  capillary  moisture,  each  grain  is  covered  all 
over  with  a  thin  layer  of  water.  Deep  down  in  the  soil  near 
where  the  free  water  is  found  the  layers  of  water  around  the 
grains  are  quite  thick.  Higher  up,  the  films  are  less  thick. 
The  films  about  the  grains  are  as  thin  as  the  films  of  soap 
bubbles.  The  grains  next  to  the  air  become  as  dry  as  the 
air  itself. 

But  the  moisture  is  constantly  moving  from  the  lower 
depths  toward  the  surface.  The  power  by  which  this  move- 
ment takes  place  is  called  capillary  action.  It  is  in  the  same 
way  that  oil  will  rise  in  the  wick  of  a  lamp. 

The  moisture  moves  upward  in  fine-grained  soils  such  as 
clay  more  readily  than  in  coarse  sand.  The  openings  be- 
tween soil  grains  are  called  ycrre  spaces.  If  these  are  rather 
large  the  capillary  movement  of  water  is  slow.  Packing  the 
soil  grains  closer  together,  as  with  a  roller,  will  greatly  in- 
crease the  rise  of  water  in  the  soil.  This  is  often  done  when 
small  grain  or  grass  seeds  are  sown,  to  hasten  the  sprouting 
of  the  seeds. 

Water  Holding  Power  of  Soils. — One  hundred  pounds  of 
each  of  the  following  soils,  when  saturated,  held  the  following 
amounts  of  water  in  capillary  form: 


SOIL  MOISTURE 


61 


Sand held    25  pounds  moisture 

Heavy  clay held    50  pounds  moisture 

Cultivated  loam held    52  pounds  moisture 

Black  garden  loam held    81  pounds  moisture 

Humus held  190  pounds  moisture 

Exercise. — Absorbing  Rainfall. — ^Arrange  an  apparatus 
as  shown  in  Fig.  34.  Use  gravel,  sand,  loam,  clay,  and  peat, 
or  other  soils  of  the  region.  Pour  water  on  all  of  these, 
keeping  the  soil  covered.  With  watch  or  clock  note  time 
required  in  each  case  for  the  water  to  begin  dripping  through 


Fig.  34. — Apparatus  to  show  the  rate  of  taking  in  rain  water  by  five  different 
soils.  Cloth  tied  around  the  mouth  of  the  bottles  prevents  the  soil  from  washing 
through.     (Agricultural  Education.) 


into  the  glass  below.  Which  kind  of  soil  will  take  in  rainfall 
most  rapidly?  Which  has  the  closest  texture?  What 
becomes  of  most  of  the  rain  water  falling  on  a  compact  soil 
during  a  heavy  rain? 

Exercise. — To  Illustrate  Capillarity. — Place  one  end  of 
an  old  loose  cloth  in  a  cup  of  water  and  leave  the  other  end 
outside.  In  a  short  time  the  whole  cloth  may  become  wet 
by  capillarity.  The  water  moves  along  in  the  fine  meshes 
of  cloth.  Oil  is  drawn  up  in  a  lamp  through  the  wick  by  the 
force  of  capillarity. 


62 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Exercise.  —  To  Show  Capillarity  in  Soils.  —  Tie  cloth 
over  the  large  ends  of  lamp  chimneys  and  fill  with  different 
kinds  of  dry  soils,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35.  Set  them  in  a  dish 
of  water.  The  water  will  rise  in  the  soils  by  capillarity.  It 
will  rise  much  higher  in  the  finer  soils  such  as  clay  and  loam. 
Moisture  rises  quickly  but  not  so  high  in  coarse  land. 

Increasing  Soil  Moisture. — Since  humus  holds  so  much 
capillary  water,  the  farmer  has  one  sure  way  to  increase  the 
water-holding  power  of  any  soil.  The  addition  of  green 
manure  and  barn  manure  will  cause  humus  to  form  in  the 
soil.    Large  quantities  of  humus  will  hold  more  moisture  in 


Fig.  35. — ^Water  rises  more  rapidly  by  capillarity  through  fine  soils 
than  in  coarse  soil. 


the  capillary  form  and  thus  encourage  the  growth  of  larger 
crops.  Deep  plowing  will  increase  the  depth  of  the  water 
reservoir.  Harrowing  and  cultivating  will  help,  because 
the  more  a  soil  is  stirred  the  less  water  it  will  lose  by  evapo- 
ration. Furthermore,  rains  sink  into  a  loose  surface  better 
than  into  a  hard  compact  one.  Underdrainage  of  soils  will 
increase  this  power  to  hold  capillary  moisture,  because  the 
volume  of  soil  above  the  free  water  level  is  made  greater. 

How  to  Save  Soil  Moisture. — Spaces  between  soil  grains 
serve  as  very  crooked  small  tubes  to  conduct  the  lower  soil 
water  toward  the  surface.     Harrowing  and  cultivating  the 


SOIL  MOISTURE 


63 


surface  of  the  soil  will  break  the  connection  of  the  spaces  or 
pores  with  each  other.  If  this  capillary  connection  is  broken 
near  the  surface  the  moisture  will  be  checked  in  its  upward 
movement  and  be  held  near  the  roots. 

The  covering  of  fine  soil  produced  by  a  harrow  or  culti- 
vator is  called  a  dust  mulch  or  fine  soil  mulch  (Figs.  36a  and  6). 
The  chief  purpose  of  the  dust  mulch  is  to  save  moisture.  As 
growing  plants  use  a  very  large  amount  of  water,  it  is  wise 
for  the  farmer  to  keep  a  fine  soil  mulch  on  the  fields  all  the 


Fig.  36a — A  ten-shovel  sulky  cultivator.  This  form  of  machine  leaves  a  fine 
soil  surface  which  helps  to  save  moisture. 

Fig.  366. — A  one-horse  walking  cultivator  with  many  small  shovels  and  a  smooth 
rake  behind.  The  fine  soil  mulch  produced  is  the  best  means  of  preventing  evapora- 
tion of  the  moisture. 

growing  season.  If  the  tubes  and  pores  through  which  the 
water  passes  are  undisturbed  the  water  will  escape  rapidly 
into  the  air.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  these  tubes  are  broken 
by  tillage,  evaporation  is  checked. 

Exercise. — Effect  of  Mulch. — When  the  ground  is  dry 
place  an  old  cloth  or  carpet  or  a  bunch  of  hay  on  the  ground. 
In  a  day  or  so  the  ground  under  this  mulch  will  become 
moist  by  drawing  water  up  from  beneath,  while  the  ground 
around  the  mulch  may  remain  quite  dry.     A  covering  of 


64  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

fine  soil  made  with  a  rake,  called  a  dust  mulch,  will  have 
+Jie  same  effect  in  keeping  garden  soils  moist  during  dry 


Fig.  37. — Spike-toothed  harrow,  producing  a  dust  mulch  in  a  peach  orchard. 

(Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 

weather.     A  dust  mulch  can  be  made  with  a  fine-toothed 
harrow  or  weeder  over  a  large  field  very  rapidly  (Fig.  37). 

REVIEW. 

1.  Name  the  three  forms  of  water  in  soils. 

2.  Which  form  is  most  useful  to  growing  plants? 

3.  How  can  we  determine  the  amount  of  capillary  water  in  a  soil 
sample? 

4.  Uow  does  free  water  in  soil  help  the  farmer? 

5.  Under  what  circumstances  is  the  free  water  harmful? 

6.  What  becomes  of  the  moisture  taken  up  by  a  growing  crop? 

7.  Describe  the  movement  of  capillary  moisture  in  soils? 

8.  What  are  pore  spaces  in  soils? 

9.  What  kinds  of  soil  have  the  largest  pores? 

10.  In  what  soils  is  the  capillary  movement  of  moisture  most  rapid? 
What  is  the  effect  of  rolling  the  loose  soils? 

11.  What  soils  hold  the  most  capillary  moisture? 

12.  What  kind  holds  the  least? 

13.  Suppose  humus  soil  and  sandy  soil  were  mixed,  what  would  be 
the  effect  on  their  moisture-holding  powers? 

14.  What  is  a  dust  mulch?    How  made? 

15.  What  is  the  effect  of  a  dust  mulch? 

Reference. — ^U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  266,  Management  of  Soils 
to  Conserve  Moisture. 


LAND  DRAINAGE  65 

CHAPTER   VII. 
LAND  DRAINAGE. 

All  good  farm  land  should  be  well  drained.  In  some 
cases  it  is  naturally  drained  because  of  the  loose  or  open 
character  of  the  subsoil.  In  other  places  we  find  the  sur- 
face so  sloping  that  much  of  the  rainfall  is  carried  away  on 
the  surface  or  near  the  surface.  There  are  special  cases 
where  some  form  of  artificial  drain  should  be  used. 

What  Drainage  Does. — In  soils  where  water  stands  too 
close  to  the  surface,  drainage  will  help  in  several  ways.  We, 
therefore,  use  draining  ditches  or  drain  pipes  for  the 
following  reasons: 

1.  To  remove  surplus  water. 

2.  To  admit  air  to  soil  and  roots. 

3.  To  deepen  feeding  area  for  roots. 

4.  To  reduce  suffering  at  time  of  drought. 

5.  To  aid  tillage. 

6.  To  increase  chemical  action. 

7.  To  raise  the  soil  temperature. 

Soil  which  has  been  well  drained  is  improved,  not  only 
by  the  removal  of  water  from  it,  but  because  the  more  rapid 
passage  of  water  through  the  soil  carries  the  air  and  warmth 
to  lower  levels,  which  are  important  factors  in  making  plant- 
food  soluble,  and  thus  increasing  the  power  of  plants  to 
secure  food. 

On  too  many  farms  we  find  half-developed  crops  grown 
year  after  year  upon  land  which  would  be  able  to  yield 
large  returns  if  properly  drained. 

Methods  of  Drainage. — There  are  two  general  methods  of 
draining  land:  first,  by  open  ditches,  which  may  have  either 
straight  banks  or  sloping  banks;  second,  by  underdrains  or 
5 


66  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

covered  drains,  which  may  be  composed  either  of  tile  (Fig. 
38)  or  of  broken  stone,  gravel,  boulders,  etc.  Surface  or 
open  ditches  are  cheaper  to  start  with,  but  are  not  so  good 
as  others.  They  do  not  give  as  good  results,  and  are  in 
the  way. 

Effect  on  Roots. — Deep  drainage  increases  the  room  for 
plant-roots.  The  roots  of  most  farm  crops  will  not  grow 
down  into  any  free  water  which  may  be  standing  in  the  sub- 
soil. If  drains  carry  away  such  water  the  roots  may  go  into 
the  deeper  soil  to  get  plant-food  (Fig.  39,  D). 


Fig.  38. — Ready  to  lay  the  six-inch  drain  tiles. 

This  reduces  suffering  at  time  of  drought,  because  the 
roots  are  then  so  deep  in  the  soil  that  the  drying  of  the 
surface  does  not  harm  them.  They  get  their  moisture  from 
lower  depths  and  from  a  larger  volume  of  soil. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  free  water  is  allowed  to  remain 
near  the  surface  during  the  spring  of  the  year  (Fig.  39,  F), 
very  shallow  root  systems  are  formed.  Later,  in  July,  when 
a  drought  comes,  the  free  water  settles  to  a  great  depth  too 
quickly  for  the  roots  to  follow.  The  shallow  roots  are  then 
surrounded  by  the  dry  soil  near  the  surface  and  growth  is 
stopped  (Fig.  39,  W). 


LAND  DRAINAGE 


67 


How  Drainage  Warms  the  Soil. — Drainage  lowers  the 
water  in  soils.  As  the  water  goes  downward,  the  air  from 
above  is  drawn  into  the  soil.  In  warm  weather  the  air  will 
thus  warm  the  soil,  increase  chemical  action,  and  aid  in  the 
growth  of  soil  bacteria.    Plant  growth  is  thus  hastened. 

Drains  Ventilate  the  Soil. — This  not  only  warms  the  soil 
but  also  gives  it  the  necessary  oxygen  and  removes  the 
harmful  gases. 


*?t 


11     ' 


.-?  r..^- 


w 


Fig.  39. — Drainage  deepens  the  feeding  area  for  roots  and  reduces  the  suffer- 
ing at  time  of  drought.  The  view  at  the  left  shows  free  water  just  under  the  roots. 
When  drought  comes  the  roots  are  left  so  near  the  surface  as  to  let  them  dry  very 
badly.  See  centre  view.  The  view  at  the  right  shows  the  deep  root  system 
allowed  by  tile-drainage. 


Where  Drainage  is  Needed. — There  are  several  kinds 
of  places  where  it  would  be  wise  to  put  in  artificial  drains 
of  some  kind: — 

1.  Flat  lands  which  are  too  wet  because  of  the  overflow 
of  streams  at  time  of  heavy  floods. 

2.  Bogs  and  marsh  lands  which  hold  the  free  water  too 
near  the  surface  most  of  the  summer  season. 

3.  Large,  flat  areas  having  clay  subsoils. 

4.  Depressions  in  hillsides  which  hold  the  water  coming 
from  the  land  above. 

5.  Fields  which  are  to  be  flooded  at  certain  times  for 
special  crops,  such  as  rice  and  cranberries. 

Principles  of  Underdrainage.  —  The  value  of  under- 
drains  depends  upon  the  free  passage  of  water  through  them. 


68  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

They  should  always  lead  to  the  lowest  portion  of  the  field. 
They  must  be  gradually  sloped  to  secure  an  even  flow  of 
water  in  them.  A  fall  of  two  feet  in  one  thousand  will  be 
enough  for  the  flow  of  water  if  the  tile  pipes  are  laid  care- 
fully. The  main  drain  should  always  occupy  the  lowest 
part  of  the  field,  and  the  others  may  lead  the  water  to  the 
main. 


Fig.  40. — Laying  drain  tiles  and  testing  the  depth  by  measurement  from  level 

grade  stakes. 

The  distance  of  drains  from  each  other  and  the  depth 
below  the  surface  are  governed  by  the  character  of  the  land. 
On  light,  open  soils,  they  should  be  deeper  and  farther  apart; 
on  heavy  land  they  should  be  nearer  to  the  surface  and  closer 
together.  The  mouth  of  the  drain  should  be  well  protected,, 
and  kept  free  and  open. 

Drain  Tile. — The  best  underdrains  are  made  by  laying 
drain  tile  pipes  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditches.  These  are 
then  covered  with  soil. 


SOIL   IMPROVEMENT  69 

The  tile  pipes  should  be  very  strong  and  hard,  so  they 
will  not  rot  in  the  soil.  They  should  be  smooth  inside  to 
avoid  clogging.  The  ends  should  be  clean  cut  so  they  will 
fit  together  closely.  A  very  common  length  for  each  piece 
is  twelve  inches,  but  sometimes  they  are  longer  than  this. 

The  joints  are  open  but  are  usually  covered  with  sods, 
rocks,  broken  tile  or  other  material  to  help  keep  out  the  fine 
soil.  Sections  of  drain  pipe  are  placed  as  close  together  as 
possible  and  the  openings  are  very  small  (Fig.  40). 

Water  enters  drain-pipes  at  the  joints.  The  pipes  carry 
away  only  the  free  water  and  the  capillary  moisture  is  left 
in  the  soil  for  the  use  of  plants.  If  the  pipes  should  lead 
through  a  drier  soil,  the  water  would  there  flow  from  the 
pipes  into  the  soil. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  several  ways  in  which  drainage  may  help  the  soil. 

2.  Give  two  methods  of  draining  land. 

3.  How  does  drainage  warm  the  soil  in  the  spring? 

4.  How  does  drainage  reduce  suffering  at  time  of  drought? 

5.  Give  five  kinds  of  places  where  drainage  is  needed. 

6.  Give  several  points  to  be  observed  in  making  underdrains. 

7.  What  does  distance  between  lines  of  tile  depend  upon? 

8.  What  things  help  to  determine  the  depth  at  which  to  lay  drain 
tiles? 

9.  Describe  good  drain  tiles. 

10.  How  does  water  enter  a  line  of  tile? 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  158,  How  to  Build  Small 
Irrigation  Ditches;  187,  Drainage  of  Farm  Lands;  263,  Practical  Infor- 
mation for  Beginners  in  Irrigation ;  373,  Irrigation  of  Alfalfa;  399,  Irriga- 
tion of  Grain;  404,  Irrigation  of  Orchards. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
SOIL  IMPROVEMENT. 


The  farmer  should  do  what  he  can  to  improve  soils,  as 
natural  causes  work  too  slowly.  The  depletion  of  a  poor 
soil  may  be  due  to  the  natural  causes.  Fields  that  are  on 
hillsides  may  be  badly  washed  and  gullied  by  running  water 


70 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


from  rains.  Such  bad  effects  can  usually  be  remedied  by  the 
application  of  practical  methods.  The  aim  should  be  to 
bring  the  soil  into  suitable  condition  for  the  production  of 
large  crops. 

Kinds  of  Improvement. — The  improvement  may  be  in 
several  regards: 

1.  In  its  physical  condition. 

2.  In  its  chemical  make-up  and  food-yielding  power. 

3.  In  its  moisture-holding  power. 

4.  In  its  germ  life  or  bacteria. 


Fia.  41. — Plowing  uiidt 


.aiiure  to  add  humus  te 


:a. 


Tillage  is  one  of  the  commonest  ways  to  put  soil  in  proper 
physical  condition  to  yield  good  crops.  There  are  two  main 
types  of  tillage:  Deep  tillage,  as  with  a  plow  (Fig.  41),  and 
shallow  tillage,  as  with  harrows  and  cultivators  (Figs.  37 
and  42). 

Objects  of  Plowing. — The  primary  object  of  plowing  a 
field  is  to  make  a  good  seed  bed  by  crumbling  the  soil  and 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT 


7J 


making  it  fine.  As  the  furrow  slice  slides  along  the  curved 
surface  of  a  polished  mouldboard,  the  particles  are  caused  to 
sHde  upon  each  other.  Take  the  leaves  of  a  book  between 
yoiu"  thumb  and  finger  when  the  edges  are  nearly  even. 
Bend  them,  and  see  that  they  all  slide  a  little  and  the  edges 
are  no  longer  even.  Thus,  in  plowing,  the  particles  of  soil 
tend  to  sHde  upon  each  other 
and  the  crumbling  is  accom- 
phshed.  Other  objects  of 
plowing  include: 

1.  The  covering  of  wild 
plants  and  burying  of  stub- 
ble, stalks,  vines,  and  other 
wastes. 

2.  The  unlocking  of  plant- 
food  in  the  soil  by  exposing 
the  particles  to  new  condi- 
tions of  heat,  light,  moisture, 
and  air. 

3.  The  deepening  of  the 
water  reservoir  and  making 
the  moisture  conditions  more 
perfect. 

4.  Loosening  of  the  soil  to 
allow  of  better  shallow  tillage. 

Plowing  not  only  pulverizes  and  loosens  the  soil;  it  may 
also  warm  and  dry  wet  soil;  it  may  deepen  the  surface  soil 
and  increase  the  feeding  area  for  roots;  it  admits  air  and 
increases  the  weathering;  it  deepens  the  water  reservoir. 

Plows. — ^Walking  plows  are  best  for  rough  and  stony 
fields.  Riding  plows  have  wheels,  and  are  called  sulky 
plows.  These  are  much  more  common  in  sections  where 
the  fields  are  large,  level,  and  free  from  stones  and  stumps. 

Gang  plows  are  those  which  have  two  or  more  plows 
attached  to  the  same  frame  and  turn  several  furrows  at  a 


Fio.  42. — Cultivating  young  peach 
trees.  Frequent  tillage  makes  the  soil 
yield  its  fertility  to  growing  plants. 
(Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


7a  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

time  (Fig.  43).  The  two-plow  gang  is  usually  drawn  by 
horse  power,  but  larger  gangs  are  frequently  drawn  by  steam 
or  gasoline  traction  engines. 

Forms  of  Mouldboards. — Plows  have  three  main  forms 
of  mouldboards,  suited  to  the  different  purposes  of  the  farm. 

The  mouldboard  for  turning  over  sod  is  long  from  the 
front  point  to  the  rear,  is  very  oblique,  and  has  a  very  slight 
curve.  The  rear  of  the  mouldboard  turns  the  slice  more 
nearly  upside  down  than  the  other  forms.   . 

The  mouldboard  for  stubble  ground  is  extremely  different 
from  that  of  the  sod  plow,  being  very  short,  steep,  and  much 
curved.  It  bends  the  furrow  slice  abruptly  and  causes  it 
ijo  crumble,  leaving  it  somewhat  on  edge. 


Fig.  43. — Modern  gang  plow,  turning  two  furrows  at  a  time. 

The  general  purpose  mouldboard  is  medium  in  form 
between  the  other  two  extremes,  and  is  useful  where  much 
litter  and  manure  are  to  be  plowed  under. 

Fall  Plowing. — ^When  a  field  is  plowed  in  the  fall  it  gives 
more  time  for  the  rotting  of  barnyard  manure  and  other 
forms  of  vegetable  matter  turned  under  by  the  plow.  The 
farmer  usually  has  more  time  in  the  fall,  and  the  plows  may 
be  kept  going  until  the  soil  is  frozen.  Heavy  soils  plowed  in 
the  fall  are  greatly  improved  and  made  mellow  by  alternate 
freezing  and  thawing  during  winter.  Many  forms  of  inju- 
rious insects  are  destroyed  in  the  upturned  soil  during  the 
winter.     The  moisture  conditions  are  betteT  and  the  crops 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  73 

will  suffer  less  from  drought  than  if  the  soil  were  not  plowed 
until  late  spring. 

There  is  one  strong  argument  against  late  fall  plowing: 
It  prevents  the  growth  of  a  winter  cover  crop  on  the  field. 
The  very  light  soils  are  greatly  benefited  by  winter  cover 
crops.  In  regions  where  the  climate  is  dr}'-,  winter  cover 
crops  are  used  to  prevent  the  blowing  of  soils.  In  hilly 
regions  where  heavy  winter  rains  are  common,  cover  crops 
are  necessary  to  prevent  washing  or  erosion. 

Depth  of  Plowing. — For  most  crops  deep  plowing  gives 
better  results  than  shallow  plowing.  A  very  good  general 
rule  for  humid  climates  would  be  to  always  plow  the  soil 
as  deep  as  the  dark  surface  soil,  being  careful  to  not  bring 
too  much  of  the  subsoil  to  the  surface.  When  vegetable 
matter  is  plowed  under  each  year,  the  plowing  can  extend 
to  a  greater  depth  each  time. 

Shallow  tillage  includes  the  cultivating  and  harrowing  of 
soils.  There  are  several  objects  in  view — the  preparation 
of  a  seed  bed,  the  killing  of  weeds,  and  the  saving  of  moisture. 
(Figs.  36a  and  6,  37  and  42.) 

Preventing  Weeds. — Before  crops  are  planted  in  the 
spring,  the  soil  should  be  so  frequently  tilled  as  to  prevent 
the  starting  of  weeds;  that  is,  to  kill  the  little  sprouts  before 
they  show  above  ground.  On  fields  of  corn,  potatoes,  cotton, 
and  other  crops  in  rows,  the  tillage  should  also  be  very 
frequent  and  shallow — thus  killing  the  little  sprouts  of  weeds 
and  checking  the  loss  of  soil  moisture.  If  weeds  are  allowed 
to  grow  they  take  from  the  soil  quite  as  much  plant-food  and 
moisture  as  the  cultivated  plants. 

Green  Crops  as  Manures.-^Crops  are  frequently  grown 
with  the  intention  of  turning  them  under  before  they  become 
mature.  Such  are  called  green  manures.  They  add  vegetable 
matter  to  the  soil  in  a  form  to  decay  quickly.  This  produces 
humus  and  liberates  considerable  plant-food  in  a  form  ready 
for  crops  to  use.    Both  physical  and  chemical  benefits  thus 


74  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

arise  from  the  use  of  green  manures.  Red  and  crimson 
clover,  cow  peas,  vetch,  rye,  and  buckwheat  are  commonly- 
used  as  green  manures,  but  any  other  crops  may  be  grown 
for  this  purpose.  Those  plants  which  belong  to  the  legume, 
or  clover,  family  are  among  the  best  for  this  purpose,  because 
they  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  leave  it  available  for 
the  use  of  other  crops.  The  benefits  of  this  family  of  plants 
will  be  discussed  more  fully  in  the  chapters  on  Farm  Crops 
and  Alfalfa. 

Benefits  Enumerated. — By  the  careful  use  of  green 
manures,  soils  may  be  benefited  in  several  ways : 

1.  Food  is  brought  from  great  depths  by  the  roots  and 
when  turned  under  is  left  near  the  surface. 

2.  Such  food  is  left  in  a  form  suitable  for  other  plants 
to  easily  make  use  of  it,  because  the  green  manure  will  decay 
quickly. 

3.  The  decaying  matter  becomes  humus  and  has  many 
beneficial  effects,  already  studied. 

4.  Chemical  action  in  the  soil  is  promoted. 

5.  Small  organisms,  bacteria  helpful  to  the  soil,  are 
multiplied  more  rapidly. 

Planning  for  Green  Manures. — It  requires  some  planning 
ahead  to  be  most  successful  in  securing  crops  suitable  as 
green  manures.  Certain  crops,  such  as  rye  and  crimson 
clover,  may  be  sown  in  the  late  summer  or  fall  after  the 
season's  crop  is  off.  These  may  be  plowed  under  in  the  spring 
as  green  manure  before  the  next  season's  crop  is  put  in.  Cow 
peas  or  buckwheat  may  be  used  to  produce  a  good  heavy 
green  manure  crop  by  letting  it  use  the  last  half  of  the 
summer  after  a  crop  of  small  grain  has  been  removed  from 
the  field. 

Care  in  Their  Use. — When  too  heavy  crops  of  rye  or 
clover  are  plowed  under  at  one  time,  there  are  apt  to  be  bad 
results.  This  is  chiefly  due  to  the  formation  of  acids  in  the 
soil  which  make  it  sour.    Such  bad  effects  are  not  noticed 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  -  75 

when  there  is  plenty  of  lime  in  the  soil.  Lime  should  be 
applied  to  the  soil  when  heavy  crops  are  plowed  under. 
Heavy  applications  of  green  manure  also  have  a  drying 
effect  upon  the  soil,  and  there  may  then  be  more  suffering 
at  time  of  drought. 

Benefits  of  Lime. — In  another  chapter  the  character  of 
limestone  soils  was  discussed.  (Pages  53-54.)  It  is  a  good 
practice  to  spread  lime  on  soils  for  certain  crops  just  as 
fertilizer  is  applied.  The  benefits  derived  from  the  addition 
of  lime  to  soils  are  here  enumerated: 

It  aids  decay  of  vegetable  matter. 

It  helps  liberate  plant-foods  in  the  soils. 

It  hastens  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  the  soil. 

The  heavy  clay  soils  are  made  more  open,  porous,  and 
more  easily  tilled;  moisture  and  air  move  more  freely;  the 
soil  will  then  become  warmer  in  early  spring. 

The  light  sandy  soils  are  made  more  compact,  and  hold 
moisture  better. 

Lime  acts  upon  acids  in  soils  and  destroys  the  sourness; 
this  is  a  benefit  for  nearly  all  farm  crops. 

It  is  a  direct  plant-food  for  alfalfa  and  some  other  mem- 
bers of  the  clover  family. 

Exercise.  —  Slaking  Lime.  —  Expose  a  small  lump  of 
burned  lime,  called  quick-lime,  on  a  board  or  paper,  for  a 
day  or  more  until  it  crumbles  to  powder.  This  powder  is 
then  called  air-slaked  lime.  A  second  lump  of  quick-lime 
may  be  placed  in  a  dish  and  wet  with  a  very  little  water 
from  time  to  time  until  it  heats  and  crumbles.  When  burned 
lime  is  used  on  soil,  it  should  be  air-slaked  before  spreading. 
A  little  water  added  to  it  will  hasten  the  slaking. 

Exercise.  —  To  Study  Lime-water.  —  Slake  some  fresh 
lime  the  size  of  a  baseball  by  pouring  water  over  it  very 
slowly  until  it  crumbles.  Then  cover  it  well  with  water 
and  stir.  After  it  is  allowed  to  settle,  pour  off  the  clear 
water     Put  in  a  strip  of  red  litmus  paper  and  note  the  result. 


76  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Put  in  a  strip  of  blue  litmus  paper  and  see  the  result.  Why 
is  it  not  affected?  Draw  off  a  glassful  of  the  lime-water 
and,  after  taking  a  deep  breath  and  holding  it  for  awhile, 
force  the  air  from  the  lungs  into  it  through  a  straw  or  tube. 
■The  milky  color  resulting  shows  that  there  is  a  union  of  the 
lime-water  with  the  carbon  dioxide  in  the  breath,  and  a  new 
substance  is  formed.  If  some  of  the  clear  lime-water  is  left 
open  to  the  air  for  some  time,  a  white  crust  will  be  formed 
on  the  top  of  it  in  the  same  way. 

Exercise. — To  Show  an  Important  Plant-food  in  Ashes. — 
Pour  a  few  quarts  of  water  into  a  pan  of  wood  ashes  and 
allow  it  to  stand  for  fifteen  minutes.  Drain  the  water  out 
through  a  loosely  woven  cloth.  Examine  the  Hquid  to 
detect  the  lye  or  potash  in  it.  It  is  soft  and  slippery  to  the 
touch.  Place  some  red  Htmus  paper  in  the  Hquid.  It  will 
turn  blue.  This  is  because  the  potash  is  what  we  call  an 
alkali. 

Exercise. — Wood  Ashes  and  Sour  Soil. — Bog  soils  are 
often  sour  and  show  an  acid  reaction  with  litmus  paper. 
Make  some  soil  sour  by  wetting  it  with  vinegar.  See  if  it 
turns  litmus  paper  red.  Then  wet  it  with  ''lye  water'' 
obtained  by  letting  wood  ashes  stand  in  a  vessel  of  water. 
Test  with  litmus  paper.  This  time  it  should  change  to  blue. 
Sour  (or  acid)  soils  may  be  made  ''sweet"  or  neutral  by 
spreading  wood  ashes  on  them.  Fresh  or  well-stored  wood 
ashes  contain  both  potash  and  hme,  which  have  several 
benefits  besides  correcting  acidity  of  soils. 

Exercise. — Lime  and  Sour  Soil. — Take  a  sample  of  sour 
soil  which  you  have  prepared  as  in  the  last  exercise.  Sweeten 
(or  neutralize)  it  by  the  application  of  lime-water  prepared 
by  slaking  lime  in  water.  Lime  is  very  helpful  to  bog  soils 
and  other  soils  too  rich  in  humus. 

Barnyard  Manure. — The  use  of  barnyard  manure  on 
farm  and  garden  soils  is  one  of  the  best  ways  of  improving 
them.    Its  benefits  are  of  several  kinds.    It  is  a  direct  food 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  77 

for  plants  because  of  the  three  fertilizing  elements  which 
it  contains,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  These 
are  the  three  elements  of  plant-food  of  greatest  value  to 
plants.  Another  benefit  is  from  the  vegetable  matter  con- 
tained in  the  manure,  which  is  a  great  source  of  humus. 
This  helps  to  put  the  soil  into  better  physical  condition  and 
makes  a  better  home  for  soil  bacteria.  The  decay  of  the 
vegetable  matter  sets  up  certain  chemical  changes  which 
are  of  benefit  to  the  soils  and  crops. 

Value  of  Manure.  —  The  value  of  barnyard  manure 
depends  on  several  conditions : 

The  age  and  kind  of  animals. 

The  kind  and  amount  of  feed  they  eat. 

The  amount  and  kind  of  litter  or  bedding  used. 

The  care  of  the  manure  after  it  is  made. 

The  age  of  the  manure. 
When  compared  with  the  market  prices  of  commercial 
fertilizers  the  average  value  of  manure  from  the  barn  of  a 
horse  or  mule  in  a  year  is  estimated  at  $27;  a  cow,  S19; 
a  hog,  $12;  a  sheep,  $2.  To  get  these  values  the  manure 
must  be  used  to  the  best  advantage. 

When  equal  weights  of  manure  are  considered  the  values 
from  the  different  kinds  of  farm  stock  would  usually  be  in 
this  order:  Poultry,  sheep,  pigs,  horses,  cows. 

Loss  in  Manures. — Manures  are  liable  to  lose  their  value 
during  storage  from  two  direct  causes: 

Mrst,  heating,  when  left  in  heaps  in  the  barnyard  or  in 
the  field.  This  results  in  the  loss  of  nitrogen.  Manure  must 
not  be  allowed  to  get  hot  from  its  own  fermentation. 

Second,  leaching,  when  left  where  water  can  wash  it. 
This  may  take  away  much  of  the  valuable  plant-food.  When 
manure  is  allowed  to  leach  the  most  valuable  parts  are  lost 
first. 

Extremes  in  moisture  and  temperature  should  not  be 
allowed  if  manure  is  to  be  saved.    There  is  very  little  loss 


78 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


if  the  heap  is  kept  wet  enough  to  prevent  heating,  and  kept 
dry  enough  to  prevent  water  from  passing  through  it. 

Under  the  average  conditions  where  manure  is  allowed 
to  stand  in  the  barnyard  for  three  months  or  more,  the  loss 
is  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  plant-food  in  it  (Fig.  44). 

Care  of  Manures. — A  good  way  to  save  manure  is  to 
store  it  under  cover — sheltered  from  rain  and  direct  sunshine. 

There  is  less  heating  of  manure  when  it  is  packed  very 
hard,  because  the  air  is  kept  away.  One  plan  of  keeping 
it  well  packed  is  to  have  a  shed  or  covered  barnyard  with  a 


Fig.  44. — A  poor  way  to  store  barnyard  manure,  even  when  the  ground  is  level. 
The  barn  is  badlj-  rotted  by  this  method.     (Animal  Industry.) 

cement  floor,  on  which  the  manure  from  the  barn  is  spread 
daily.  Stock  are  allowed  to  tramp  this  down  all  winter,  and 
it  is  hauled  to  the  fields  in  the  spring. 

Spreading  Directly  on  Fields. — Barnyard  manure  is  used 
to  the  best  advanta^ge  when  it  is  spread  directly  on  the  fields 
regularly,  every  day  or  every  week.  In  northern  and  central 
states  where  many  animals  are  stabled  during  the  winter, 
a  large  amount  of  manure  is  allowed  to  pile  up  about  the 
buildings  and  waste  rapidly.  It  should  be  spread  on  the  fields, 
where  it  is  to  be  used,  as  fast  as  it  is  made.  (Figs.  45  and  46). 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT 


79 


This  saves  the  manure  best.  Labor  is  cheaper  in  winter; 
snows  may  allow  the  use  of  sleds  for  hauling;  the  least  amount 
of  labor  is  required  in  placing  the  manure  from  the  stalls 
on  a  sled  or  wagon  to  be  taken  to  the  field.  The  manure 
should  be  spread  when  carried  to  the  field,  and  not  left  in 
heaps  to  leach. 

The  practice  followed  in  some  sections  of  putting  the 
manure  in  piles  in  the  field  should  be  stopped.  That  is  an 
old-fashioned  way  which  requires  more  labor.  It  makes  the 
grain  or  other  crop  uneven  in  growth  and  uneven  in  ripening. 
It  does  not  make  the  best  use  of  the  plant-food  in  the  manure. 


Fig.  45. — Tiie  ;:  lUre  spreadfr  in  tlio  ],arnyar(l.    A  litter  rai-rier  Avhich 

runs  on  an  overhead  u^cn.  i-.  ci.-ed  to  take  the  manure  from  the  barn.  Tije  hgure 
shows  the  carrier  in  position  of  emptying  into  the  spreader-box.  The  team  is 
hitched  on  and  the  load  is  spread  in  a  field  as  shown  in  another  figure. 

Using  Barnyard  Manure. — Three  points  should  be  con- 
sidered in  the  use  of  barnyard  manure.  First,  it  is  rich  in 
nitrogen  and  has  some  of  the  other  elements.  Second,  it  is 
well  supplied  with  bacteria  which  are  very  helpful  to  the 
soil.    Third,  it  supplies  the  soil  wiih  himaus. 

The  manure  of  the  farm  should  be  spread  on  the  highest 
parts  of  each  field,  because  they  are  usually  the  poorest  soils 
and  some  of  the  fertility  naturally  washes  down  toward  the 
lower  soils. 


80  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

A  light  dressing  of  manure  on  each  field  every  year  is 
better  than  very  heavy  applications  less  frequently.  This  is 
particularly  true  if  the  soils  are  light.  Large  applications 
of  manure  are  saved  better  by  heavy  soils  than  by  light  soils. 

Fresh  manure  has  a  forcing  effect  on  the  crops.  If  large 
amounts  of  fresh  manure  be  applied  to  light  soils  there  is 
danger  of  the  plants  suffering  from  drought  in  dry  seasons; 
the  soil  may  be  made  too  open  and  loose  by  too  much  fresh 
manure  at  one  time.  Soils  containing  much  clay  will  not 
suffer  from  larger  amounts  of  fresh  manure. 


Fig.  46. — A  man  me  spreader  at  work.   Thismachii  i  ted  to  spread 

the  manure  thick  or  thin  on  the  field.  The  spreader  makes  tne  Dest  use  of  the  manure, 
saves  labor,  and  produces  the  most  uniform  crop. 

Some  root  crops,  such  as  potatoes,  may  be  injured  by  the 
use  of  fresh  manure.  Scab  disease  may  become  worse.  On 
fields  where  such  crops  are  to  be  grown  a  large  amount  of 
manure  may  be  used  one  year  before  the  root  crop  is  planted. 

Composts. — For  gardens,  flower-beds,  and  greenhouses, 
it  is  sometimes  a  good  thing  to  rot  the  manure  before  it  is 
used.  How  to  do  this  without  wasting  its  plant-food  is  a 
problem  which  many  farmers  do  not  understand.  The  use 
of  a  compost  heap  serves  the  purpose  very  well. 

A  good  compost  heap  is  made  by  spreading  a  layer  of 
barnyard  manure,  then  a  layer  of  tough  sods  from  a  meadow, 
or  a  layer  of  leaves,  on  each  of  these  two 'layers  is  sprinkled 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  81 

some  lime  or  wood  ashes.  The  layers  are  repeated  until 
the  manure  is  all  in  the  compost.  The  moisture  from  rains 
prevents  the  compost  heap  from  rotting  too  fast  and  becom- 
ing too  hot.  The  sod  layers  save  much  of  the  plant-food 
which  would  otherwise  leach  out. 

Rotting  manure  in  a  compost  heap  will  kill  the  weed 
seeds ;  it  will  reduce  the  bulk  of  the  manure ;  it  helps  to  unlock 
the  plant-food  in  the  manure;  it  destroys  the  injurious  effect 
which  fresh  manure  has  on  such  crops  as  potatoes.  Whether 
to  make  such  a  compost  of  the  manure  will  be  determined 
by  the  uses  for  which  it  is  intended. 

Feeding  Plants. — Those  forms  of  plant-food  which  con- 
tain nitrogen,  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  or  lime  are  considered 
most  precious  on  any  farm.  Soils  are  apt  to  become  weak 
in  these  foods.  Many  such  compounds  readily  dissolve  in 
water  and  are  lost  from  the  soil  at  times  of  heavy  rain  by 
leaching  or  washing  away.  They  may  be  absent  from  other 
causes.  There  are  few  if  any  other  plant-foods  which  need 
cause  the  farmer  much  concern.  The  others  are  usually 
abundant  enough. 

Commercial  fertilizers  containing  nitrogen  or  phosphoric 
acid  or  potash — or  all  three  of  these — are  purchased  in  great 
abundance  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States  and  for  special 
crops  elsewhere.  These  are  applied  to  the  soils  for  the 
direct  feeding  of  crops.  It  is  estimated  that  over  eight  mil- 
lion tons  of  such  fertilizers  are  used  in  the  United  States 
each  year.  These  cost  the  farmers  over  two  hundred  million 
dollars.  As  a  rule  they  have  no  beneficial  effect  in  improving 
the  soil  itself,  as  do  the  barnyard  and  the  green  manures. 
A  commercial  fertilizer  is  valuable  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  and  kind  of  these  three  plant-foods  contained  in  it. 

Nitrogen  is  the  most  important  element  of  such  fertil- 
izers, because  soils  are  more  often  in  need  of  it  and  it  is  the 
most  costly.  When  it  is  in  a  soluble  form  for  plants  to  use, 
it  is  apt  to  be  lost  from  many  kinds  of  soils,  unless  cover 
6 


82  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

crops  are  used.  There  are  several  sources  of  the  nitrogen 
purchased  for  fertiHzers.  Nitrogen  is  derived  from  animal 
or  vegetable  matter  as  in  meat  scraps,  dried  blood,  and 
cottonseed  meal.  It  is  also  abundant  in  sulphate  of  ammonia 
and  nitrate  of  soda  purchased  by  fertilizer  manufacturers. 

In  the  nitrate  form  it  is  more  quickly  useful  to  the  crops, 
and  should  be  applied  to  the  soil  after  the  plants  have  started 
growth.  Some  of  the  other  forms  in  which  nitrogen  is  used 
are  very  slow  in  changing  to  forms  available  to  plants;  some 
of  these  are  hair,  leather  scraps,  garbage  tankage,  and  others. 
It  is  very  important  for  the  farmer  to  know  the  source  of 
the  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer  he  is  buying.  For  this  reason 
it  is  becoming  a  common  practice  in  some  sections  for  farm- 
ers to  buy  the  fertilizer  materials  separately  and  mix  them 
on  the  farm. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  contained  in  substances  in  combina- 
tion with  lime  and  other  materials.  Such  combinations 
are  called  phosphates.  Ground  bone  is  one  of  the  chief 
sources  of  phosphoric  acid  in  fertilizers.  If  this  is  ground 
very  fine  it  will  rot  gradually  and  liberate  food  useful  to 
growing  crops.  Animal  bone  contains  on  an  average  foiu* 
per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  twenty  per  cent  of  phosphoric 
acid. 

Bone  tankage  is  a  by-product  from  slaughter-houses, 
made  up  of  various  wastes  that  have  been  thrown  in  a  tank 
and  the  grease  extracted.  Its  value  varies  considerably 
according  to  the  amount  of  meat  or  of  bone  in  it. 

Phosphate  rock  has  been  obtained  some  time  from  a 
number  of  deposits  in  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and  Tennes- 
see. Recent  discoveries  of  it  have  been  made  in  Utah, 
Idaho,  and  Wyoming. 

The  rock  is  used  in  two  ways:  (1)  It  is  ground  very  fine 
and  applied  to  soils,  yielding  its  phosphoric  acid  to  plants 
very  gradually.  This  form  is  sometimes  called  floats.  (2) 
The  ground  phosphate  rock  is  treated  with  sulphiu-ic  acid 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  83 

before  it  is  used  on  the  soil.  This  makes  the  phosphoric 
acid  more  quickly  available  for  the  use  of  growing  plants. 
In  this  form  it  is  called  superphosphate,  or  acid  phosphate^ 
which  is  a  soluble  phosphate;  this  may  contain  from 
foiu'teen  to  twenty  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid.  Super- 
phosphates may  also  be  made  from  bone  and  bone  tankage. 

Exercise. — To  Study  Phosphorus. — Roll  the  head  of  a 
match  between  the  moistened  fingers.  The  white  fumes  are 
caused  by  the  phosphorus  in  the  match  uniting  with  the 
oxygen  in  the  air.  They  are  called  phosphoric  acid.  This 
is  a  form  of  the  plant-food  we  have  been  studying. 

Potash  is  the  third  essential  element  in  commercial  fertil- 
izers, and  is  not  so  generally  required.  It  is  often  needed 
on  soils  that  have  been  farmed  for  a  long  time  and  also  on 
sandy  soils  and  peaty  soils.  It  is  derived  from  wood  ashes 
to  a  limited  extent.  The  largest  som-ce  is  in  the  form  of 
mineral  salts  from  the  Stassfurt  Mines  of  Germany.  The 
chief  names  given  to  these  salts  are  car-nall-ite,  kain-it, 
and  syl-vin-it.  These  may  be  ground  fine  and  used  on  the 
soil;  but  they  are  more  commonly  refined  or  concentrated 
before  being  shipped  to  this  country.  The  two  concentrated 
forms  of  potash  salts  are  the  (1)  muriate  of  potash,  contain- 
ing fifty  per  cent  of  actual  potash,  and  (2)  the  sulphate  of 
potash,  containing  forty-eight  per  cent  of  actual  potash. 
In  all  of  the  forms  potash  is  soluble  in  water,  and  is  easily 
absorbed  by  plants. 

Value  of  Fertilizers. — In  buying  commercial  fertilizers 
the  purchaser  should  remember  that  the  agricultural  value 
is  based  not  upon  the  brand  but  more  upon  kind  and  form 
of  the  elements  and  upon  their  proportion  in  the  mixture. 
Many  farmers  are  inclined  to  buy  fertilizers  that  have  a 
low  price  per  ton.  These  are  invariably  more  expensive 
sources  of  plant-food  elements  than  those  more  highly  con- 
centrated, because  of  the  necessity  of  diluting  the  mixtures 
with  "make-weight"  or  low-grade  materials.     High-grade 


84 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


fertilizers,  those  that  contain  good  forms  of  plant-food, 
cannot  be  made  from  cheap  materials,  and  if  they  contain 
high  percentages  of  the  elements  they  cannot  be  sold  for  a 
low  price  (Fig.  47).  The  price  per  ton,  whether  high  or  low, 
is  not  a  safe  guide  as  to  the  effect  that  a  fertihzer  may  have 
upon  the  crop  production.  This  is  measured  by  the  kind 
and  form  of  the  materials  used  in  the  mixture. 

Exercise. — Dissolving   Nitrate   of  Soda. — Put   one-half 
teaspoonful  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  a  glass  of  water  and  stir 


Fig.  47. — The  large  square  A  represents  a  ton  of  low-grade  fertilizer  (for- 
mula 2%  nitrogen,  8%  phosphoric  acid,  2%  potash).  The  valuable  part  is  represented 
by  the  dark  square  in  the  corner.  The  shaded  area  shows  what  is  called  filler, 
which  does  no  good  to  the  soil. 

The  large  square  B  represents  a  ton  of  high-grade  fertilizer.  The  valuable 
part  is  what  is  shown  by  the  white  square  in  the  corner.  Some  filler  is  always 
present.     It  is  represented  by  shaded  area. 


until  dissolved.  Plants  must  have  their  food  in  the  soil 
dissolved  before  they  can  use  it.  Would  this  nitrate  dissolve 
in  the  rain? 

Exercise. — Collection  of  Fertilizers. — Let  the  pupils  aid 
the  teacher  in  making  a  collection  of  all  the  different  fertil- 
izers to  be  found  at  the  dealers  or  which  can  be  secured  by 
mail.  Put  these  in  bottles  with  suitable  labels.  Keep  them 
for  future  study. 

Exercise. — Solubility  of  Phosphates. — Put  a  very  little 
phosphate  rock  which  is  ground  fine  in  a  glass  of  water 
and  see  if  it  will  dissolve.  Do  the  same  with  a  little  ground 
bone  in  another  glass.  Pour  in  a  little  clear  lime-water. 
If  there  were  any  phosphate  dissolved  this  would  cause  a 


SOIL  IMPROVEMENT  85 

white  cloudy  appearance.  If  bone  and  phosphate  rock  were 
in  the  soil,  would  they  be  dissolved  by  rain? 

Exercise. — Dissolving  Superphosphates. — Put  a  very 
little  superphosphate  (or  acid  phosphate)  from  a  fertilizer 
sack  in  a  glass  of  water  and  stir.  Does  any  of  it  dissolve? 
Add  a  little  clear  lime-water.  It  should  make  a  white  cloudy 
appearance,  showing  that  some  of  the  material  has  dissolved. 
This  would  mean  that  plants  could  use  this  form  of  fer- 
tiUzer. 

Problems. — 1.  If  nitrate  of  soda  is  16  per  cent  nitrogen, 
how  many  pounds  of  nitrogen  in  a  ton  of  it? 

2.  If  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  20  per  cent  nitrogen,  how 
much  of  it  would  be  required  to  supply  a  12-acre  field  with 
240  pounds  of  nitrogen? 

3.  When  available  phosphoric  acid  is  valued  at  5  cents 
per  pound,  what  should  be  the  cost  per  ton  of  mineral  super- 
phosphate which  is  14  per  cent  available?  What  should  it 
cost  per  ton  if  it  is  20  per  cent  available? 

4.  A  shipment  of  sulphate  of  potash  contained  48  per  cent 
potash,  which  should  sell  at  5  cents  per  pound  of  potash. 
What  will  be  the  selling  price  per  ton  of  this  fertilizer? 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  four  kinds  of  improvement  for  soils. 

2.  Give  two  kinds  of  tillage  and  the  implements  used  for  each. 

3.  Give  all  the  objects  of  plowing. 

4.  Describe  the  different  forms  of  mouldboards  and  the  special 
use  of  each  form. 

5.  What  is  a  gang  plow? 

6.  Give  several  reasons  for  fall-plowing. 

7.  Give  a  general  rule  governing  the  depth  to  plow. 

8.  Describe  a  system  of  preventing  weeds  by  shallow  tillage. 

9.  Give  the  benefits  derived  from  green  manures. 

10.  What  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  green  manures? 

11.  Give  the  effects  of  lime  on  light  soils.    On  heavy  soils. 

12.  Give  five  other  effects  of  lime. 

13.  Give  five  things  which  influence  the  value  of  barnyard  manure. 

14.  What  are  the  two  main  causes  of  loss  in  stored  manures?  How 
great  is  the  loss  usually? 

15.  Describe  two  good  ways  of  storing  manure. 


86  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

16.  By  what  plan  is  manure  used  to  the  best  advantage? 

17.  Describe  the  making  of  a  compost.    Of  what  use  is  it? 

18.  What  three  important  plant-foods  are  found  in   commercial 
fertilizers?    Which  is  the  most  important? 

19.  Name  five  or  more  substances  from  which  nitrogen  is  derived. 

20.  Give  three  sources  of  phosphoric  acid. 

21.  What  are  superphosphates? 

22.  Give  the  sources  of  potash  in  commercial  fertilizers. 

References. — United  States  Farmers*  Bulletins:  44,  Commercial 
FertiHzers;  48,  The  Manuring  of  Cotton;  77,  Liming  of  Soils;  192, 
Barnyard  Manure;  245,  Renovation  of  Worn-out  Soils;  278,  Leguminous 
Crops  for  Green  Manuring;  286,  Comparative  Value  of  Whole  Cotton 
Seed  and  Cotton-seed  Meal  in  Fertilizing  Cotton;  326,  Building  up  a 
Run-down  Cotton  Plantation;  406,  Soil  Conservation. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
SYSTEMS  OF  CROPPING. 

By  rotation  of  crops  is  meant  the  succession  of  different 
crops,  in  contrast  with  the  bad  practice  of  having  the  same 
kind  of  crop  grow  year  after  year  on  the  same  field  without 
any  cover  crop  intervening. 

Special  and  General  Farming. — In  many  of  the  Eastern 
States  special  farming  is  more  profitable  than  general  farm- 
ing. The  raising  of  dairy  produce,  poultry  products,  hay, 
and  seed-corn  are  some  of  the  distinct  lines  of  special  farm- 
ing. In  the  South,  cotton,  cane,  corn,  and  tobacco  are 
among  the  special  crops.  In  the  Northwest  and  Middle 
West  grain  is  the  only  crop  on  many  farms. 

General  farming  is  practised  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
country.  In  such  cases  it  is  found  much  easier  to  carry  out 
good  systems  of  rotation. 

Why  We  Rotate  Crops. — There  are  a  number  of  advan- 
tages gained  when  crops  are  raised  in  rotation. 

1.  Some  crops  have  deep  roots;  others  shallow  roots. 
The  growth  of  a  variety  of  crops  on  a  certain  field  will  pre- 
vent it  from  being  exhausted  so  soon. 


SYSTEMS  OF  CROPPING  87 

2.  Grain  crops  and  many  others  take  all  their  nitrogen 
from  the  soil;  but  leguminous  crops,  such  as  the  clovers, 
peas  and  beans,  gather  much  nitrogen  from  the  air  in  the 
soil.  Their  growth  will  increase  the  store  of  nitrogen  in  the 
soil.  A  rotation  of  crops  which  includes  the  legumes  will 
help  to  keep  up  the  nitrogen  supply  in  the  soil. 

3.  Crops  put  waste  matter  into  the  soil  through  their 
roots.  This  often  acts  as  a  poison  to  the  kind  of  plants  that 
put  it  there.  It  may  not  be  a  poison  to  other  kinds  of  crops 
which  follow  in  the  rotation. 

4.  Soils  should  be  covered  with  growing  crops  as  much  of 
the  time  as  possible.  This  guards  against  loss  of  soil  by 
washing  and  leaching.  It  is  possible  to  keep  the  soil  thus 
protected  if  we  have  a  rotation  of  crops;  but  it  is  usually 
not  possible  if  but  one  crop  is  grown. 

5.  Insect  enemies  and  diseases  of  plants  are  liable  to  be 
worse  when  one  crop  is  grown  continuously.  Rotation  of 
crops  is  often  a  perfect  remedy  against  these  enemies. 

6.  There  is  more  continuous  work  for  men  and  horses, 
because  a  rotation  of  crops  distributes  the  labor  throughout 
the  season.  Horses  and  men  should  be  given  steady  employ- 
ment if  possible.  It  is  not  profitable  to  keep  horses  idle  too 
long  at  a  time,  as  when  only  one  crop  is  raised. 

7.  Rotations  always  require  a  variety  of  soil  treatment, 
as  plowing  the  ground  at  different  times  of  year.  This  is 
better  than  always  following  the  same  tillage  at  the  same 
season  of  the  year.  We  can  best  control  the  soil  moisture 
by  proper  tillage  at  the  right  season. 

8.  Rotation  of  crops  helps  to  keep  weeds  in  check.  Many 
weeds  which  thrive  in  a  hayfield  will  be  kept  down  by  a 
culture  crop,  as  corn,  cotton,  or  potatoes;  while  certain  other 
weeds,  which  are  bad  in  a  cornfield,  may  be  killed  by  growth 
of  grain  or  grass. 

9.  More  sources  of  income  are  found  on  those  farms  where 
rotations  are  practised.    There  is  also  less  danger  of  financial 


88  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

loss  in  seasons  when  certain  crops  are  failures.  The  other 
crops  grown  on  the  fields  of  the  farm  may  not  fail. 

Chief  Needs  of  Rotations. — The  needs  of  rotation  are 
fairly  well  understood  by  most  farmers.  There  is  greatest 
need  when  crops  are  suffering  from  particular  weeds,  bad 
insect  pests  or  diseases,  or  when  the  soil  is  becoming  exhaust- 
ed.   However,  rotation  of  crops  should  always  be  practised. 

Exercise.  —  One  Benefit  of  Rotation  of  Crops.  —  Have 
students  dig  out  a  few  plants  of  different  kinds  of  crops, 
such  as  clover  and  timothy.  They  should  study  the  root 
systems  and  compare  the  deep-feeding  roots  with  the  shallow- 
feeding  ones.  Shallow  roots  use  the  surface  soil;  deep  roots, 
such  as  clover,  will  bring  up  food  from  the  subsoil.  This 
will  help  to  make  plain  one  value  of  rotation  of  crops. 

Bare  Fallow. — It  is  now  considered  bad  practice  to  allow 
ground  to  remain  bare  for  any  great  length  of  time  between 
one  crop  and  the  next.  It  is  sometimes  a  good  plan  to  do  this 
for  a  few  weeks  providing  the  soil  is  kept  pulverized  on  top 
by  the  use  of  a  harrow  once  a  week  or  soon  after  each  rain. 
This  practice  of  bare  fallowing  will  cause  the  sprouting  of 
weed  seeds  and  the  harrow  teeth  will  kill  the  young  sprouts. 
The  soil  moisture  is  also  saved  by  the  mulch  of  fine  soil  on 
top  of  the  field. 

Catch  Crops. — In  place  of  fallowing  has  come  the  use  of 
catch  crops.  In  this  method  the  ground  is  kept  covered  with 
a  growing  crop  of  some  kind  as  much  of  the  year  as  possible. 
For  example,  after  a  grain  crop  has  been  removed,  a  crop  of 
cow  peas,  soy  beans,  millet,  sorghum,  or  some  other  quick- 
growing  crop  is  seeded.  Crimson  clover  (Fig.  48)  and  winter 
vetch  are  often  mixed  with  winter  grain  and  sown  in  the 
cornfield  in  July,  so  they  will  be  ready  to  occupy  the  field 
as  soon  as  the  corn  crop  is  taken  off.  These  three  plants  all 
live  through  the  winter.  This  winter  cover  crop  is  also  used 
after  removing  other  crops  such  as  early  potatoes. 

How  They  Help  the  Farmer. — Catch  crops  or  cover  crops 
may  be  useful  in  several  ways: 


SYSTEMS  OF  CROPPING  89 

1.  They  help  to  hold  soil  from  washing  away  by  heavy 
rains. 

2.  Their  roots  are  helpful  to  unlock  plant-food  in  the  soil. 

3.  When  members  of  the  clover  family  of  plants,  called 
legumes,  are  used,  they  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  add 
it  to  the  soil  for  future  crops. 


Fig.  48. — Crimson  (or  scarlet)  clover.  This  is  a  hardy  legume,  chiefly  used  as  a 
winter  cover  crop.  It  is  sown  in  fields  of  corn,  cotton,  or  otiier  crops  and  in  orchards 
in  July  or  August.  It  will  improve  the  soil  while  growing  until  the  following  spring. 
It  may  then  be  cut  for  hay  or  may  be  plowed  under  for  green  manure. 

4.  They  check  the  growth  of  bad  weeds. 

5.  They  furnish  pasture,  hay  or  other  valuable  stock  feed. 

6.  If  plowed  under  as  green  manure,  they  produce  humus 
in  the  soil,  and  quickly  give  to  the  soil  the  plant-food  they 
have  been  using. 

7.  When  grown  among  fruit  trees  and  shrubs  they  check 
late  growth  of  the  trees  and  temper  the  effect  of  winter 
freezing. 


90  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Cover  Crops  in  Orchards. — In  young  orchards  winter 
rye  is  sown  in  early  fall.  This  crop  is  turned  under  in  spring 
and  soy  beans  or  cow  peas  are  sown  in  June,  to  be  turned 
under  in  time  for  sowing  rye.  These  add  humus  and  keep 
a  cover  on  the  orchard  soil;  the  cow  peas  or  soy  beans  add 
nitrogen,  and  much  plant-food  is  unlocked  by  all  of  them  for 
the  young  trees  to  use  in  their  growth. 

A  Few  Rotations. — Examples  of  rotations  with  catch 
crops  and  cover  crops  may  be  of  interest : 

1.  Oats  and  common  red  clover  may  be  sown  in  the 
early  spring.  When  the  crop  of  oats  is  harvested  the  clover 
will  occupy  the  ground  quickly.  It  forms  a  good  cover  on 
the  field  that  winter,  and  will  produce  one  or  two  cuttings  of 
hay  the  next  summer.  The  stubble  may  be  plowed  under 
for  corn  the  following  spring.  In  the  cornfield  in  July  we 
can  sow  a  cover  crop  of  crimson  clover,  winter  vetch,  and 
rye  for  a  winter  cover  crop.  This  is  to  be  plowed  under  the 
next  spring  as  green  manure.  This  three-year  rotation  is 
thus  outlined: 

Oats;    Red  clover;     Corn  with  winter  cover  crop. 

2.  Early  potatoes  may  be  followed  with  a  winter  cover 
crop.  This  cover  crop  is  plowed  under  in  the  spring  and 
early  potatoes  again  planted.  This  and  the  next  are  called 
one-year  rotations. 

3.  Corn  is  sometimes  planted  on  a  field  year  after  year 
if  a  winter  cover  crop  is  put  on  each  time. 

4.  Winter  wheat  is  sown  in  September,  and  the  crop  cut 
in  July.  After  the  stubble  is  plowed  in,  a  good  summer 
catch  crop  of  cow  peas  or  of  soy  beans  may  be  grown  in  six, 
eight,  or  ten  weeks.  Then  the  catch  crop  may  be  harvested 
for  hay  or  it  may  be  plowed  under  as  green  manure.  This 
is  done  in  time  to  prepare  the  field  for  winter  grain  again. 

A  Rotation  for  Dairy  Farms. — ^A  very  good  four-year  rota- 
tion followed  by  a  number  of  dairymen  is.  about  as  follows; 


SYSTEMS  OF  CROPPING  91 

The  farm  has  four  fields,  A,  B,  C,  and  D.  This  year, 
field  A  is  seeded  to  oats  and  red  clover  with  a  Httle  timothy 
and  blue  grass  in  it.  After  the  oats  are  cut  off  the  growth 
of  clover  comes  on  and  may  be  pastured  a  little  in  September. 
Next  year  the  clover  will  be  cut  twice  for  hay.  The  third 
year  the  field  will  be  well  filled  with  the  grasses  and  some 
clover  and  the  stock  will  use  it  all  for  pasture.  This  will  be 
plowed  for  the  next  yearns  corn  crop.  Fields  B,  C,  and  D 
each  follow  the  same  rotation,  but  each  is  just  a  year  behind 
the  other,  thus: 

A  B 

1st  year Grain  and  seeding  Clover  hay 

2d    year Clover  hay  Pasture 

3d    year Pasture  Corn 

4th  year Com  Grain  and  seeding 

C  D 

1st  year Pasture  Corn 

2d    year Corn  Grain  and  seeding 

3d    year Grain  and  seeding  Clover  hay 

4th  year Clover  hay  Pasture 

Details  of  the  Rotation. — The  four  fields  are  each  about 
the  same  size  and  the  corn  area  may  be  reduced  by  using 
part  of  that  field  for  the  summer  green-feed  each  time.  In 
this  four-year  rotation  system  two  of  the  fields  are  plowed 
and  prepared  for  planting  each  year,  one  for  spring  grain 
and  one  for  field  corn.  In  case  winter  grain  is  used  instead 
of  spring  grain,  the  corn  is  removed  as  soon  as  possible  after 
cutting. 

Quick  rotations  give  us  better  clover  for  the  dairy  herd 
than  when  the  fields  are  kept  in  hay  for  several  years.  It 
is  better  for  the  dairyman  to  produce  hay  that  is  all  clover 
than  it  is  to  let  the  clover  all  disappear  because  the  field  is 
kept  too  many  years  in  hay.  Timothy  hay  or  the  ''mixed" 
red-top  and  timothy  are  very  poor  milk  producers.  Clover 
is  more  than  twice  as  valuable  for  milk  cows. 

In  this  four-year  rotation  a  small  permanent  pasture  may 
be  used  also;  but  let  it  be  well  kept  up  and  never  used  too 


92  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

long  at  a  time.  If  the  other  four  fields  are  fenced,  the 
field  that  is  growing  up  to  timothy  and  blue  grass  will  make 
the  best  pasture. 

During  the  winter  and  early  spring  the  stable  manure  may 
be  spread  on  the  field  that  is  to  be  plowed  up  next  for  corn. 

This  rather  rapid  rotation  of  crops  keeps  up  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  well.  It  allows  the  use  of  clover  often  on  each 
field,  and  clover  manure  is  one  of  the  richest  forms  of  manure 
for  the  soil. 

Pasturing  a  field  one  season  in  four  is  no  small  factor  in 
keeping  up  its  fertility;  but  some  commercial  fertilizer,  in 
the  form  of  acid  phosphate  and  potash,  may  be  used  to  supply 
the  loss  of  mineral  constituents.  Some  of  this  fertilizer  may 
be  applied  when  corn  is  planted  and  some  when  the  grain 
is  sown.  Lime  should  be  applied  to  the  field  where  clover 
is  to  grow  next. 

In  all  rotations  where  common  red  clover  follows  small 
grain,  it  is  usually  seeded  in  the  growing  grain  in  early  spring 
or  with  the  spring  seeding  of  grain. 

An  Alfalfa  Rotation. — On  dairy  farms  where  alfalfa  is 
extensively  grown,  some  systematic  rotation  may  be  adopted. 
It  is  advisable  to  plow  up  the  alfalfa  field  as  soon  as  it  becomes 
rather  weedy.  This  gives  a  chance  to  take  advantage  of 
the  fertility  which  it  has  been  gathering  for  us. 

As  soon  as  the  June  cutting  has  been  taken  off,  the  ground 
is  quickly  prepared  for  corn  to  be  used  for  fodder.  The 
next  spring  oat-and-pea  mixture  is  sown,  and  as  soon  as  the 
crop  is  off  the  stubble  is  turned  under.  The  harrow  is  used 
once  a  week  until  the  middle  of  August;  then  lime  is  apphed 
and  alfalfa  is  seeded,  using  about  thirty  pounds  to  the  acre. 
Inoculation  at  this  time  is  unnecessary.  We  have  thus 
taken  from  the  field  a  crop  of  fodder  corn  and  one  of  oats- 
and-peas,  between  two  crops  of  alfalfa. 

Exercise. — Rotation  Courses. — Let  pupils  report  on  the 
rotations  followed  at  home  or  in    the    farming   neighbor- 


SYSTEMS  OF  CROPPING 


93 


hoods  where  they  are  best  acquainted.  They  may  tell 
whether  they  could  be  improved  or  not.  Some  of  them 
should  be  written  on  the  blackboard  and  discussed  as  to  the 
tillage  required,  effects  on  weeds,  and  other  points. 


Fig.  49. — Oats  and  peas  sown  in  early  spring,  ready  to  cut  for  use  as  green 
feed  or  for  making  hay  by  the  middle  of  June.  Corn  may  be  grown  on  the  same 
ground  in  the  same  sea.'ion.  Harvesting  the  oats  and  peas  shown  in  the  upper 
figure.  The  stubble  may  be  plowed  or  disked  and  the  field  quickly  planted  to  corn. 
(Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 

Succession  Cropping. — This  is  the  growing  of  one  crop 
after  another  on  the  same  land  in  the  same  season.  For 
example,  radish,  lettuce,  tomatoes.  Let  the  pupils  tell  what 
plans  of  cropping  they  have  seen  in  use  either  in  gardens 


94  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

or  in  fields.     This  may  arouse  much  valuable  discussion. 
(Figs.  49,  50.) 

Companion  Cropping. — This  is  a  form  of  double  cropping. 
What  crops  may  be  grown  in  fields  together?    Have  you  seen 


^t^ 


i***i. 


Fig.   50. — Com  grown  for  forage  after  the  spring  crop  of  oats  and  peas  shown  in 
Fig.  49.     (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 

corn  and  squashes  grown  together?  All  the  pupils  should 
think  over  the  crops  that  may  grow  together  as  companion 
crops.  Early  onions  with  late  celery  are  an  example  in  the 
garden.  Early  dwarf  peas  and  tomatoes  may  be  grown 
together. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  examples  of  special  lines  of  farming  in  your  section  of  the 
country. 

2.  Give  several  reasons  for  the  rotation  of  crops. 

3.  Why  do  we  want  crops  of  the  legume  family  in  a  rotation  series? 

4.  Can  you  tell  how  rotation  of  crops  will  help  to  keep  down  insect 
enemies  and  diseases  of  plants? 

5.  Explain  why  you  think  the  sixth  advantage  from  rotation  of 
crops  is  a  good  one. 

6.  Name  some  weeds  often  found  in  hayfields  or  pastures  which 
would  not  thrive  in  a  cultivated  cornfield. 

7.  Give  one  benefit  of  a  bare  fallow. 

8.  In  what  condition  should  soil  be  kept  during  a  bare  fallow  period 
of  a  few  weeks? 

9.  Tell  the  difference  between  a  bare  fallow  system  and  a  catch 
crop  system. 


FARM  CROPS  95 

10.  Give  examples  of  summer  catch  crops. 

11.  Give  examples  of  plants  used  as  winter  cover  crops. 

12.  Give  several  uses  of  catch  crops  and  cover  crops. 

13.  Should  such  crops  be  used  in  young  orchards  or  in  old  ones? 

14.  How  do  they  benefit  the  soil  and  trees? 

15.  Give  an  example  of  a  three-year  rotation  of  crops. 

16.  Tell  when  each  of  these  crops  is  planted  and  harvested. 

17.  Give  an  example  of  a  rotation  system  where  potatoes  are  the 
special  crop  desired. 

18.  Repeat  the  four-year  rotation  given  in  the  book  for  dairy  farms. 

19.  Describe  a  good  rotation  where  alfalfa  is  grown. 

20.  What  is  succession  cropping?    Give  examples. 

21.  What  is  companion  cropping?    Give  examples. 

References.— U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  318,  Cow  Peas;  337,  Crop- 
ping Systems  for  New  England  Dairy  Farms. 


CHAPTER  X. 
FARM   CROPS. 


Classification  of  Crops. — Field  crops  are  those  which  are 
most  commonly  grown  in  fields;  they  are  sometimes  also 
grown  in  gardens.  Those  usually  found  in  gardens  only 
are  called  horticultural  crops;  these  include  all  fruits  and 
flowers  and  most  vegetables. 

Crops  of  all  kinds  may  also  be  classified  according  to  the 
following  six  groups: 

1.  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops. — These  include  grasses,  clo- 
vers, and  alfalfa,  used  for  green  forage,  for  hay,  or  for  pas- 
ture; and  cotton,  flax,  and  hemp,  used  for  fiber. 

2.  Cereal  Crops. — The  grains  are  called  cereals.  These 
include  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye  and  enamer. 

3.  Tuber  Crops. — White  or  Irish  potatoes  are  true  tubers; 
sweet  potatoes  are  usually  also  classified  with  tubers,  but 
strictly  speaking  they  are  beUeved  to  be  roots. 

4.  Root  Crops  include  many  that  are  used  for  stock  feed, 
such  as  mangels,  field  beets,  beets,  turnips,  carrots. 

5.  Market-garden  Crops. — Here  we  find  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, celery,  onions,  lettuce,  radish,  table  beets,  meJons, 
and  many  others. 


96  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

6.  Fruit  Crops. — These  may  be  grouped  as  (a)  stone 
fruits,  such  as  peach,  plum,  and  cherry;  (5)  pome  fruits, 
such  as  apple,  pear,  and  quince;  (c)  small  fruits,  such  as 
strawberries,  grapes,  currants,  gooseberries,  raspberries,  and 
blackberries ;  (d)  citrus  fruits,  such  as  orange,  lemon,  pomelo 
or  grape  fruit,  and  lime  fruit. 

7.  Timber  Crops,  or  products  of  the  forest. 

FORAGE  CROPS. 

The  Soiling  System. — One  thing  that  the  dairy  farmer 
needs  to  keep  in  mind  is  the  succession  of  green  forage  for 
use  during  the  summer  months  when  the  weather  is  dry  and 
the  pastures  are  short.  Crops  grown  to  be  cut  and  fed  green 
to  stock  are  called  soiling  crops.  Such  a  system  of  feeding 
is  called  the  soiling  system.  A  better  name  would  be  the 
green-feed  system.  The  soiling  system  used  on  any  farm 
may  be  either  (1)  entire  soiling,  when  green  feed  is  provided 
for  the  whole  season,  or  (2)  partial  soiling,  where  it  is  used 
in  combination  with  pastures. 

The  need  for  preparation  in  advance  is  very  great  on  all 
dairy  farms  in  this  climate.  The  weather  statistics  show 
that  we  always  have  least  rainfall  in  midsummer.  There 
is  certain  to  be  enough  drought  each  summer  to  cause  a 
great  shrinkage  in  the  milk  flow  from  herds  fed  on  pastures. 

Just  when  the  drought  will  come  depends  somewhat  upon 
the  locality  and  also  the  season.  Frequently  it  is  in  July. 
Dairymen,  however,  prepare  themselves  to  take  care  of  the 
herd  regardless  of  the  dates  when  the  dry  weather  comes. 

In  a  single  county  alone  each  summer  there  are  thousands 
of  dollars  lost  by  the  dairymen,  due  to  the  lack  of  green 
feed  during  the  dry,  hot  days.  In  some  localities  the  shrink- 
age of  milk-flow  is  forty  per  cent  in  two  weeks'  time.  In 
other  cases  the  loss  is  about  twenty-five  per  cent  in  the 
same  time.  Who  is  the  loser  at  such  a  time?  Is  it  the  dairy 
farmer,  or  is  it  the  buyer?  Surely  the  farmer  gets  nothing 
for  the  milk  which  his  cows  fail  to  produce.    He  stands  the 


FARM  CROPS  97 

heaviest  loss.  Some  cows  of  the  herds  run  so  low  at  the  dry- 
pasture  season  that  they  cannot  be  brought  back  to  their 
normal  flow  when  the  fall  rains  come.  They  are  often  carried 
into  winter  as  mere  strippers,  at  a  dead  loss  to  their  owners. 

The  farmer  can  lay  out  his  fields  and  plan  the  seeding 
so  as  to  have  some  green  feed  to  give  the  cows  at  any  time 
when  the  dry  weather  comes  on.  He  cannot  hope  to  have 
such  green  forage  ready  at  any  time  it  is  needed  for  the  cows 
unless  he  plans  for  it  in  advance.  First,  he  should  make  a 
list  of  the  crops  which  would  suit  his  purposes  and  his  other 
farm  plans.  Second,  he  should  decide  what  areas  of  each  of 
these  crops  will  be  needed  for  the  number  of  cows  in  the 
herd,  providing  for  plenty.  If  there  is  any  left  over  it  may 
be  used  for  hay  or  fodder. 

Soiling  Crops. — Here  is  a  suggestive  list:  Wheat  or  rye 
mixed  with  crimson  clover  or  winter  vetch,  sown  in  the  corn- 
field in  July,  to  be  cut  when  the  grain  begins  to  head  out  or 
when  in  full  blossom. 

Oats  and  Canada  field  peas  sown  in  early  spring,  to  be  cut 
as  the  peas  begin  to  blossom. 

Spring  vetch  with  oats  or  barley,  sown  at  the  same  time 
as  oats-and-peas  or  a  little  later. 

Crimson  clover  sown  in  corn  in  July  or  August,  ready  to 
cut  in  May. 

Red  clover  sown  last  season  may  be  fed  green  in  Jufte 
if  needed. 

Timothy  and  other  grasses  may  be  cut  early  and  some 
fed  green  to  the  cows. 

Alfalfa,  where  grown,  will  furnish  green  feed  from  May 
to  October. 

Millets  sown  in  early  June  may  be  fed  six  or  eight  weeks 
later  as  green  forage. 

Cow  peas  or  soy  beans  sown  in  June  or  July  will  supply 
a  long  succession  of  green  feed,  at  dates  six  to  ten  weeks  from 
the  seeding  time. 
7 


98  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Flint  corn,  sweet  corn,  dent  corn,  and  kaffir  (Fig.  58), 
sown  broadcast  or  drilled  in  rows,  will  begin  to  furnish  feed 
as  early  as  July  15th  or  August  1st.  This  will  last  until 
fall  frosts  come. 

After  these  soiling  crops  are  gone  the  dairy  farmer  may 
use  root  crops,  such  as  mangels,  to  furnish  succulence  for  the 
dairy  in  late  fall  and  early  winter,  if  ensilage  is  not  available. 

Oats  and  Peas. — The  benefits  derived  from  using  this 
mixture  as  a  crop  each  year  on  the  farm  are  very  great.  As 
forage  this  mixture  is  very  good  because  of  the  high  content 
of  protein. 

The  ground  should  be  plowed  and  harrowed  early  and 
the  seed  drilled  in  as  early  as  the  weather  will  permit.  Do 
not  be  afraid  of  a  little  freezing  weather  afterward.  Two 
bushels  of  Canada  field  peas  and  one  bushel  of  oats  will  seed 
an  acre.    A  bushel  and  a  half  of  each  may  be  used. 

For  Green  Feed. — Begin  to  cut  the  crop  for  green  feed 
just  as  the  first  pea  blossoms  are  showing.  This  first  field 
will  furnish  green  feed  for  the  dairy  herd  for  ten  or  fifteen 
days,  depending  on  the  weather. 

For  a  herd  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  cows,  it  is  well  to 
allow  two  acres  for  each  sowing  of  oats-and-peas,  and  make 
three  sowings — one  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked;  the 
next  two  weeks  later;  and  the  last  about  three  weeks  later 
than  the  second  sowing.  The  yields  should  be  ten  or  twelve 
tons  of  green  feed  per  acre. 

A  Good  Hay. — The  areas  mentioned  for  each  of  these 
sowings  may  leave  a  little  each  time  to  be  cured  for  hay. 
Those  dairy  feeders  who  are  already  familiar  with  the  good 
feeding  qualities  of  hay  made  from  oats-and-peas  will  be 
sure  to  make  the  areas  large  enough  to  leave  plenty  of  the 
crop  to  be  cured  for  winter  use.  In  cutting  it  for  hay  it 
must  not  be  allowed  to  get  too  ripe.  If  the  peas  are  hard 
the  cows  do  not  Uke  them  so  well.  The  cured  hay  is  nearly' 
equal  to  good  clover  hay  as  winter  roughage. 


FARM  CROPS  99 

When  farmers  get  a  larger  crop  of  hay  from  this  mixture 
than  they  can  from  common  grasses,  they  should  not  depend 
upon  timothy  and  red  top  so  much  in  dairy  sections.  Aside 
from  the  yield,  we  must  remember  also  that  the  quality  of 
the  haj'  is  much  better  than  timothy,  for  it  contains  two  or 
three  times  as  much  protein  or  milk-producing  substance. 

There  is  always  a  greater  yield  of  oats  per  acre  because 
of  the  presence  of  the  Canada  peas.  A  field  sown  with  three 
bushels  per  acre,  half  peas  and  half  oats,  will  yield  more  oats 
than  if  the  sowing  were  all  oats.  This  is  because  the  peas 
gather  nitrogen  for  the  two,  getting  it  from  the  air. 

A  Good  Grain  Mixture. — If  the  crop  should  be  ripened  and 
threshed,  the  grain  may  be  all  ground  together.  This  pro- 
duces an  excellent  balanced  grain  ration  for  the  dairy  cow. 
Why  should  dairjnnen  not  produce  more  of  their  own  grain 
at  home  in  this  very  way?  Oats  alone  seldom  pay  for  the 
cost  of  raising  them  in  the  East,  but  when  raised  in  this 
mixture  they  will  pay  well,  providing  we  have  a  mill  near 
by  where  the  grinding  can  be  done.  Swine  and  poultry  thrive 
on  this  grain  mixture. 

Forage  for  Midsummer. — The  foregoing  are  chiefly  very 
early  crops.  Other  special  crops  may  be  grown  which  will 
be  ready  to  feed  to  stock  at  a  time  near  midsmnmer  when 
pastures  are  apt  to  be  too  dry  to  give  the  stock  enough  feed. 
Some  such  crops  were  mentioned  in  the  earlier  part  of  this 
chapter.  As  we  have  already  seen,  this  system  of  green 
feeding  is  called  the  soiling  system.  Now  let  us  consider 
the  matter  of  growing  such  forage  crops  as  will  be  ready  to 
feed  green  during  the  dry  season.  We  can  then  combine  the 
pasture  system  with  the  soiling  system — called  partial  soiling. 

Corn  for  Green  Forage. — Early  sweet  corn  may  be  ready 
for  July  use.  The  ears  may  be  used  for  market  and  the  forage 
fed  to  stock.  Early  flint  com  would  come  along  just  after 
it.  Next  the  dent  field  corn  would  be  fit  to  use.  This  would 
last  until  frost. 


100 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Several  plantings  of  sweet  and  dent  corn  may  be  made 
through  May  and  June,  the  later  plantings  being  ready 
later.  It  is  best  to  not  use  these  early  plantings  of  corn 
before  they  are  in  the  roasting-ear  or  milk  stage.  In  that 
condition  corn  has  a  good  supply  of  nourishment,  but  it 
grows  richer  as  it  grows  older. 


Fig.  51. — i>lacK.-nulied  white   kaffir,  much  grown  in  dry  climates  to  use  in    place 
of  corn.     (Experiment  Station,  Kans.) 


Substitutes  for  Corn. — Kaffir  (Fig.  51)  and  sorghum  are 
both  good  substitutes  for  field  corn  and  have  the  advantage 
of  being  suitable  to  feed  green  at  almost  any  stage  in  their 
growth,  because  they  are  a  little  more  fibrous.  Both  sorghum 
and  kaffir  make  rapid  growth  in  warm  weather  on  good  soil. 

The  Legume  Family. — This  is  a  family  of  plants  of  great 
value  to  agriculture.    The  legume  family  is  often  called  the 


FARM  CRdP^^       '      '^     "   '  '   101 

clover  or  pea  family,  after  prominent  members  of  the  group. 
Other  common  plants  included  in  it  are  beans,  lentils,  locust 
trees,  alfalfa,  vetches,  lupins,  cow  peas,  and  soy  beans. 

The  growth  of  characteristic  one-sided  blossoms  and  the 
formation  of  seed  in  a  pod  are  distinguishing  features  of  the 
members  of  this  family. 

They  have  power,  under  proper  conditions,  of  taking 
free  nitrogen  from  the  air  for  their  own  use  in  growing.  They 
have  nodules  on  their  roots  which  are  the  homes  of  special 
kinds  of  helpful  bacteria.  It  is  when  these  bacteria  are 
present  that  the  plants  can  use  the  nitrogen  from  the  air. 
None  but  members  of  this  family  are  thus  able  to  use  the 
free  nitrogen.  But  when  the  stubble  and  roots  of  the  legumes 
decay  they  leave  nitrogen  in  the  soil  in  a  form  which  other 
kinds  of  crops  can  use.  As  nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive 
element  in  purchased  fertilizers,  farmers  should  use  members 
of  this  family  often  in  the  rotation  courses  to  secure  nitrogen 
in  the  soil  for  all  crops.     (Page  87.) 

Exercise. — To  Become  Acquainted  with  Some  Legumes. — 
The  members  of  the  class  should  bring  samples  of  different 
clovers,  alfalfa,  vetch  (wild  pea),  beans,  peas,  or  other 
legumes.  If  possible,  examine  the  pods  of  seed  in  the  heads 
of  clover  and  on  other  plants.  Note  also  the  one-sided 
appearance  of  the  blossoms  on  all  of  them.  The  clover 
heads  are  composed  of  many  blossoms. 

Exercise. — Nodules  on  Clover  Roots. — Have  some  of 
the  older  pupils  dig  up  roots  of  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  leg- 
umes. Wash  them  and  find  the  nodules  or  lumps,  the  size 
of  a  pin-head  or  larger.  These  are  the  homes  of  many  bac- 
teria which  aid  the  clover  plants  in  getting  nitrogen.  Save 
the  best  samples  obtained  in  this  exercise  by  placing  them 
in  a  bottle  of  water  with  a  small  amount  (2  per  cent)  of 
formalin  added  to  it.    (See  Eigs.  52  and  55a.) 

Legumes  for  Summer  Forage. — Farmers  should  give 
some  attention  to  the  growing  of  several  legume  crops  and 


10^ 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


mixed  crops  for  use  when  pastures  are  dry  in  summer,  and 
also  for  winter  forage. 

There  are  two  summer,  or  hot  weather,  legumes  which 
should  always  find  a  place  in  the  rotations  on  a  dairy  farm. 
Cow  peas  (Fig.  53)  and  soy  beans  have  both  been  tried  so 
often  that  their  use  is  no  longer  an  experiment. 


Fig.  52. — Alsike-clover  roots  (on  left)  and  garden-pea  roots  (on  right).  Useful 
bacteria  live  in  these  nodules  and  enable  the  plants  to  use  nitrogen  from  the  air  which 
they  otherwise  could  not  do. 


They  have  many  advantages:  Quick,  dense  growth  if 
sown  in  warm  weather;  a  big  supply  of  green  forage  to  feed 
when  pastures  are  dry;  very  good  for  hay  if  cut  and  cured 
in  dry  weather;  ten  to  twelve  per  cent  of  protein  in  the  cured 
crop;  a  very  high  content  of  protein  in  the  ripened  seed, 
especially  of  soy  beans;  a  big  supply  of  nitrogen  and  green 
manure  for  the  improvement  of  the  soil  if  the  crop  is  turned 
under,  or  even  if  the  stubble  and  roots  only  are  worked  in; 
and  the  deep  roots  are  a  great  physical  help  in  most  soils. 


FARM  CROPS 


103 


In  a  warm  spring  it  is  safe  to  sow  cow  pe£is  early  in  June, 
and  the  quick-growing  varieties  will  be  ready  to  begin  feeding 
green  by  the  middle  of  July.  Six  or  seven  pecks  of  seed  per 
acre  are  sown.    By  a  succession  of  sowings  of  two  or  three 


Pig.  53. — Cow  peas  grown  in  hot  weather  in  eight  weeks.    They  produce  good  green 
feed  or  green  manure.     (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


varieties  we  can  give  the  cows  fresh  green  forage  every  day 
from  early  July  until  frost  time. 

Cow=Pea  Mixtures. — A  larger  yield  to  the  acre  can  be 
produced  by  mixing  cow  peas  or  soy  beans  with  other  crops. 
We  must  choose  a  crop  that  does  best  in  the  hot  weather, 


104  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

such  as  barnyard  millet,  pearl  millet,  sorghum,  kaffir,  or 
even  common  field  corn.  These  all  serve  as  nurse  crops 
and  allow  the  use  of  taller  chmbing  varieties  of  cow  peas. 
Under  most  conditions  the  mixtures  are  better  for  the  dairy 
farmer  than  the  cow  peas  alone.  The  mixtures  usually  cure 
better  if  any  is  left  to  cut  for  hay.  Splendid  winter  forage  is 
thus  produced. 

The  True  Clovers. — The  most  important  clovers  of  the 
Northern  States  are  white  or  Dutch  clover,  red  clover, 
alsike  or  Swedish  clover,  and  crimson  or  scarlet  clover.  The 
clovers  are  the  most  popular  forage  plants  of  the  legume 
family. 

White  clover  is  a  low  trailing  perennial  plant  with  white 
blossom  heads.  It  is  too  low  to  be  useful  for  hay,  but  is 
abundantly  grown  in  pastures. 

Red  clover  is  more  commonly  grown  for  hay  in  the  North 
and  East  than  any  other  legume.  It  lives  about  two  years. 
There  are  two  varieties — the  common  or  medium  and  the 
mammoth  or  sapling  clover.  The  latter  is  coarser  and  taller 
and  blossoms  later.  They  are  both  often  mixed  with  timothy 
for  hay  purposes.  Red  clover,  if  grown  alone,  will  usually 
produce  two  crops  of  hay  the  year  after  sowing.  The  second 
growth  may  be  saved  for  seed  production,  as  the  bumble- 
bees, which  carry  the  pollen  from  blossom  to  blossom,  are 
more  abundant  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer. 

Alsike  clover  is  more  slender  and  shorter  than  red  clover. 
It  is  a  short-lived  perennial,  but  it  re-seeds  itself  in  the 
field  somewhat.  The  blossoms  are  shorter  and  smaller,  so 
that  common  honey-bees  will  work  in  them  and  carry  the 
pollen.  Thus  seed  may  be  formed  in  the  first  crop  in  June. 
The  hay  made  from  alsike  clover  is  finer  and  better,  but  the 
yield  is  lighter  than  red  clover.  These  two  clovers  are  often 
mixed  together  and  with  timothy  for  hay. 

Crimson  clover  is  an  annual  plant  which  is  hardy  enough 
to  live  over  winter  as  far  north  as  the  fortieth  parallel  of 


FARM  CROPS  105 

latitude  or  farther  north  where  soils  are  favorable  (Fig.  48). 
It  is  chiefly  used  as  a  winter  cover  crop  after  early  potatoes, 
or  sown  in  cornfields  in  July  to  grow  until  spring.  The 
following  spring  it  may  be  plowed  under  as  a  green  manure 
or  it  may  be  pastured  or  used  for  green  forage. 

Methods  of  Starting  Clover. — There  are  three  methods 
of  starting  red  clover. 

Probably  the  most  common  way  is  to  sow  the  seed  in  early 
spring  in  a  field  of  grain  sown  the  fall  before;  or  with  spring 
grain  sown  at  the  same  time.  After  the  grain  is  off  in  summer 
the  clover  soon  begins  to  show. 

Second,  red  clover  is  often  given  a  better  start  by  seeding 
alone  in  August  or  early  September,  just  as  for  the  summer 
seeding  of  timothy  alone.  This  plan  has  the  advantage  of 
an  extra  plowing  of  the  ground  after  the  early  crop  has  been 
harvested.  Weeds  are  removed  and  weed-seed  sprouted 
and  killed.  Lime  is  applied  to  a  better  purpose  at  that  time 
after  the  fine  seed  bed  is  prepared. 

A  third  way  is  to  seed  the  red  clover  in  the  cornfield 
in  August  just  as  crimson  clover  often  is  seeded  with  the  last, 
cultivation  of  the  corn.  After  the  corn  is  cut  a  stubble 
cutter  is  used  so  the  field  may  be  in  suitable  condition  for  the 
use  of  the  mower  next  season.  This  rotation  and  method  of 
seeding  is  less  common,  and  for  several  reasons  less  desirable. 

Too  many  farmers  allow  their  hayfields  to  stand  three 
or  more  years.  In  such  cases  the  clover  plants  die  and  other 
grasses,  such  as  timothy  and  red  top,  and  weeds  fill  the  field. 
This  is  a  bad  mistake  if  dairy  feed  is  wanted.  Too  often 
dairymen  are  trying  to  get  milk  from  the  feeding  of  timothy 
hay.  Such  grasses  usually  make  only  one  good  cutting  a  year, 
with  a  little  aftermath.  The  clovers  are  twice  as  rich  in  pro- 
tein, and  two  good  cuttings  may  be  made.  Furthermore, 
quicker  rotations  are  better  for  the  soil. 

When  to  Cut  for  Hay. — Red  clover  for  hay  should  be  cut 
early.     Do  not  wait  until  its  heads  are  a  third  brown.    A 


106  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

better  time  is  when  the  heads  are  just  beginning  to  turn 
brown.  This  will  make  hay  which  has  more  protein  in  it 
and  the  cows  like  it  better  if  it  is  cut  early. 

Permanent  Pastures. — A  permanent  pasture  is  a  field 
which  is  used  as  a  pasture  each  summer  and  does  not  enter 
into  any  systematic  rotation.  In  some  instances  the  field  is 
used  for  such  a  pasture  because  of  the  rough  surface  making 
it  untillable.  It  may  be  too  steep  or  hilly,  or  too  stony,  or 
have  too  many  stumps,  or  be  too  low  and  wet  for  cultivated 
crops.  In  some  of  these  places  pastures  may  be  very  good 
if  properly  maintained. 


Fig.   64. — Dump  hay-rake  used  in  raking  hay  into  windrows.    (Plant  Industry.) 

In  still  other  instances  we  find  permanent  pastures  on 
the  very  best  soil  and  over  tillable  areas. 

Good  Pasture  Plants. — Low  white  clover,  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  and  timothy  are  the  most  popular  and  best  plants 
for  pastures  where  the  climate  is  moist  and  cool.  There  are 
many  other  grasses  which  we  often  find  growing  with  these, 
such  as  red  top,  meadow  fescue,  orchard  grass,  and  Canada 
blue  grass.  A  variety  of  grasses  is  best  because  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  seasons,  and  variations  in  soils.    For  example, 


FARM  CROPS  107 

shallow-rooted  plants  like  wet  soils  better  than  the  deeper- 
rooted  plants  do;  some  stand  drought  better  than  others; 
some  kinds  require  more  lime  in  the  soil  than  others. 

Bad  Conditions  in  Pastures. — Too  often  the  permanent 
pasture  is  a  field  of  weeds  with  very  little  grass  to  be  found 
most  of  the  summer.  The  conditions  grow  worse  each  year. 
Little  feed  is  supplied  to  the  cows  pasturing  there;  milk  is 
made  bitter  and  given  other  bad  flavors  by  garlic,  wild 
onions,,  and  other  weeds,  eaten  by  the  animals.  The  number 
of  acres  used  for  the  pasture  often  fools  the  dairyman  into 
the  thought  that  the  cows  get  plenty  of  feed  from  it  if  they 
want  it.  Here  is  where  the  trouble  begins.  The  cows  do  get 
a  fair  amount  of  grass  for  a  while  in  June.  But  the  change 
comes;  the  dry  weather  strikes  it;  the  grasses  are  shallow 
rooted;  the  result  is  dead  grass.  The  blossom  and  seeding 
time  for  early  grasses  comes;  this  also  means  death. 

How  to  Keep  Good  Pastures. — The  pasture  should  be 
filled  with  good  stands  of  mixed  grasses.  The  farmer  should 
maintain  the  pasturage  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  Certain 
amendments  or  improvements  are  needed  from  time  to  time — 
such  as  fertilizing,  liming,  re-seeding,  harrowing,  mowing, 
and  using  a  few  sheep  in  the  pasture  with  the  cows. 

Fertilizers  and  manures,  particularly  nitrate  of  soda, 
may  be  spread  a  few  weeks  before  the  stock  are  turned  on 
to  the  pastures  in  the  spring. 

Lime  should  be  applied  to  low  meadow  land  every  year 
or  two.  Clovers,  blue  grass,  and  timothy  do  much  better 
after  the  liming. 

Re=seeding  is  a  good  practice.  More  seed  should  be 
sown  wherever  the  grasses  are  not  so  thick  as  they  should 
be.  A  good  time  for  this  is  very  early  in  the  spring.  The 
thicker  we  make  the  grass  the  less  room  there  is  for  weeds. 

Harrowing  is  quite  possible  on  many  parts  of  most  pas- 
tures.   A  number  of  harrowings  each  spring  will  pay  well. 

Mowing  the  pasture  twice  each  year  will  help  to  check 


108  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

the  growth  of  weeds  and  will  prevent  many  of  them  from 
seeding.  It  also  helps  the  growth  of  all  grasses.  The  cutting 
should  be  made  high,  as  a  low  cutting  destroys  too  much  of 
the  valuable  leaf  growth  of  the  lower  grasses.  In  a  pasture, 
the  tall  weeds  and  tall  grasses  that  have  sent  up  seed  stalks 
should  be  mown  down.  The  cows  do  not  like  them  because 
they  are  old  and  fibrous. 

Sheep  may  be  used  in  a  very  rough  pasture  along  with 
cows  to  help  keep  down  the  weeds.  They  have  a  liking  for 
many  kinds  of  weeds  and  keep  them  eaten  close  to  the 
ground.  Too  many  sheep  will  eat  the  grasses  so  close  that 
cows  cannot  get  enough. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  system  or  lack  of  system  referred 
to  on  the  first  page  of  this  chapter? 

2.  After  making  a  farm  map,  tell  whether  you  think  there  are  too 
many  fields  or  too  few. 

3.  Eastern  farms  usually  have  many  more  fields  than  Western 
farms.    Tell  of  the  advantages  if  any  in  each  case. 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  having  a  farm  map? 

5.  What  is  the  soiling  system? 

6.  What  are  soiling  crops? 

7.  What  are  some  advantages  of  summer  soiling  for  dairy  cows? 

8.  Why  is  there  need  for  it  in  connection  with  the  pasture  system? 

9.  Name  some  of  the  crops  for  spring  and  early  summer  soiling. 

10.  Name  some  better  suited  to  growth  in  hot  summer. 

11.  Mention  three  uses  of  oats-and-peas. 

12.  At  what  stage  should  this  crop  be  cut  to  cure  for  hay? 

13.  When  may  soy  beans  and  cow  peas  be  sown? 

14.  What  are  some  reasons  in  their  favor? 

15.  Give  a  list  of  common  plants  belonging  to  the  legume  family. 

16.  Give  two  characteristics  of  this  family. 

17.  How  does  the  growth  of  legumes  in  a  field  aid  the  soil  ? 

18.  Why  should  a  farmer  use  legumes  in  a  rotation  with  other  crops? 

19.  What  does  the  absence  of  nodules  from  the  roots  of  clover  tell 
the  farmer? 

20.  Name  four  kinds  of  clover  and  give  the  length  of  life  of  each. 

21.  What  is  the  chief  use  of  white  clover? 

22.  Which  two  clovers  are  most  commonly  cut  for  hay? 

23.  Tell  of  the  two  varieties  of  red  clover. 

24.  What  bees  pollinate  red  clover?     What  bees  pollinate  alsike 
clover? 

25.  Of  what  special  use  is  crimson  clover? 

26.  Which  of  the  three  methods  described  for  starting  red  clover 
ia  considered  the  best? 


r 


ALFALFA  109 


27.  At  what  stage  should  red  clover  be  cut  for  hay? 

28.  In  what  kinds  of  fields  are  permanent  pastures  often  found? 

29.  Name  the  plants  to  be  grown  in  the  best  pastures. 

30.  Mention  some  of  the  bad  conditions  associated  with  permanent 
pastures. 

31.  Tell  of  five  things  to  help  maintain  permanent  pastures. 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  28,  Weeds:  And  How  to 
Kill  Them;  121,  Beans,  Peas,  and  Other  Legumes  as  Food;  164,  Rape  as 
a  Forage  Crop;  224,  Canadian  Field  Peas;  278,  Leguminous  Crops  for 
Green  Manuring;  312,  A  Successful  Southern  Hay  Farm;  315,  Progress 
in  Legume  Inoculation;  323,  Clover  Farming  on  the  Sandy  Jack- 
pine  Lands  of  the  North;  331,  Forage  Crops  for  Hogs  in  Kansas  and 
Oklahoma;  361,  Meadow  Fescue:  Its  Culture  and  Uses;  362,  Conditions 
Affecting  tlie  Value  of  Market  Hay;  402,  Canada  Bluegrass:  Its  Culture 
and  Uses. 


CHAPTER  XL 
ALFALFA. 


Alfalfa  is  the  best  milk-producing  crop  we  can  grow. 
It  may  be  used  either  for  green  feed  or  for  hay,  but  in  the 
East  it  is  best  not  to  pasture  it.  It  is  so  rich  in  protein  that 
a  ton  of  the  dry  hay  is  equal  to  a  ton  of  bran  for  dairy  cows. 
It  produces  heavy  yields;  the  farmer  may  expect  from  four 
to  five  or  even  six  or  seven  tons  of  cured  hay  each  season 
from  an  acre. 

Alfalfa  as  Green  Feed. — As  a  green  feed  there  is  nothing 
that  will  excel  it.  Alfalfa  reproduces  itself  frequently  and 
constantly  throughout  the  summer,  by  a  quick  new  growth 
each  time  it  is  cut.  A  good  stand  of  alfalfa  on  four  or  five 
acres  will  supply  all  the  green  feed  needed  for  a  herd  of 
twenty-five  cows  from  the  latter  part  of  May  until  the  middle 
of  September.  A  little  is  cut  at  a  time  so  as  to  keep  it  always 
rather  fresh  for  the  cows.  By  the  time  the  entire  field  is  thus 
fed  off,  the  side  of  the  field  first  cut  is  again  ready  for  cutting. 

A  Soil  Improver. — There  is  one  more  strong  argument  in 
favor  of  alfalfa  growing,  viz.,  it  is  a  soil  improver.  The  roots 
reach  down  deep  and  recover  lost  minerals  such  as  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid.    The  plant  is  a  great  feeder  on  nitrogen 


110  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

from  the  air.  The  store  of  nitrogen  in  the  roots  and  stubble, 
when  plowed  under,  will  help  produce  large  corn  or  other 
crops  on  that  field  afterwards. 

Sprouting  Weed  Seeds* — An  early  field  of  oats-and-peas 
should  be  grown  in  the  spring  and  the  stubble  plowed  under 
in  June  or  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  all  off.  The  ground  is  har- 
rowed about  once  a  week  until  the  middle  of  August.  This 
makes  a  good  alfalfa  seed  bed;  it  controls  the  soil  moisture, 
and  also  causes  the  weeds  to  sprout  and  be  killed  by  the 
harrow.  Now  if  we  select  alfalfa  seed  that  is  free  from  weed 
seed,  we  will  have  very  little  or  no  trouble  from  weeds  in  the 
alfalfa  field  later  on.  The  seed  should  be  examined  with  a 
good  reading  glass  before  sowing. 

Inoculation  of  Soils. — As  alfalfa  requires  its  own  bacteria 
in  the  soil  where  it  is  growing,  the  grower  should  get  four 
or  five  hundred  pounds  of  soil  from  the  nearest  alfalfa  field 
and  spread  it  on  each  acre  of  the  new  field.  Do  this  when 
the  sun  is  not  shining  so  the  bacteria  will  not  be  killed.  It 
should  be  harrowed  in  immediately.  These  germs  in  the  new 
soil  will  be  ready  to  help  the  young  plants  as  soon  as  they 
start  to  grow  (Figs.  55a  and  b).  New  alfalfa  fields  require 
inoculation  before  sowing  the  seed,  except  in  a  few  parts  of 
the  country  where  certain  wild  legumes  like  sweet  clover  have 
used  the  same  kind  of  bacteria. 

Liming  the  Field. — Alfalfa  is  a  great  lover  of  lime.  It 
is  best  to  plow  the  field  and  apply  at  least  a  ton  of  fine  lime 
to  each  acre  not  long  before  seeding.  If  some  lime  was  put 
on  that  field  in  early  spring  before  the  oats-and-peas  so  much 
the  better. 

The  Seeding  of  Alfalfa. — ^We  should  be  all  ready  to  do 
the  alfalfa  seeding  by  the  time  the  first  August  rains  moisten 
the  ground  enough  to  sprout  seeds  well. 

Half  a  bushel  of  seed,  or  thirty  pounds,  is  abundant  for 
one  acre.  Half  of  it  can  be  sown  the  long  way  of  the  field  and 
then  the  last  half  put  in  cross-wise  of  that.     In  sections 


ALFALFA 


111 


where  alfalfa  is  seeded  in  the  spring,  it  is  sown  very  early, 
and  often  with  oats. 

Good  Drainage. — The  field  selected  for  alfalfa  should 
be  well  drained  and  no  water  should  stand  near  the  surface. 
The  roots  naturally  run  down  very  deep  (Fig.  55a),  and  they 
cannot  stand  free  water  at  all.  A  field  rich  enough  and  well 
enough  drained  to  produce  good  corn  or  oats  will  do  for 
alfalfa.  A  small  application  of  fertilizer  will  help  to  start 
the  crop  off  well. 


u,.  5'm. — Xodules  or  lubcrcles  on  alfalfa,  showing  the  characteristic  location 
on  tine  fibrous  roots. 

Fig.  556. — Students  studying  the  nodules  on  alfalfa  roots.    (Agricultural  Edu- 
cation.) 


Cut  Four  Times  a  Year. — Do  not  cut  the  crop  the  first 
fall  but  allow  it  to  stand  until  the  next  May  or  June  before 
the  first  cutting  is  made.  That  season  and  each  following 
year  the  crop  should  be  cut  four  times  (Fig.  56).  There  are 
two  signs  to  follow  in  deciding  when  to  cut  any  growth  of 
alfalfa.  First,  never  let  it  get  too  far  along  in  the  blossom 
stage.  Cut  it  when  the  blossoms  are  just  showing  a  little 
over  the  field.  The  second  indication  of  the  cutting  stage 
is  the  slight  starting  of  the  buds  on  the  sides  of  the  stems  at 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  new  growth  starting  from 
those  buds  means  that  the  crop  must  be  cut  and  removed 


112 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


very  quickly,  otherwise  the  new  growth  would  be  much 
injured.  If,  at  any  time,  a  yellow  appearance  or  any  spots 
on  the  leaves  should  be  seen,  the  crop  should  be  cut.  The 
last  cutting  should  be  made  in  September  so  as  to  give  time 
for  a  new  growth  to  start  before  winter  sets  in.  This  will 
help  to  prevent  winter  injury. 


Jb'iG.   56. — A.  Hay-caps  are  often  used  in  curing  the  first  cuttings  of  alfalfa 
m  humid  climates.      (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 
B.  Loading  alfalfa  by  hand  power. 


Curing  Alfalfa  Hay. — It  is  sometimes  quite  difficult  to 
cure  the  earliest  cutting  because  of  the  rains  late  in  May  and 
early  in  June.  Alfalfa  is  very  much  injured  if  wet  by  rain 
after  it  is  cut.  We  must  keep  it  dry  during  the  curing  pro- 
cess (Fig.  56,  A).  The  sap  in  the  stems  does  not  do  so  much 
injury;  so  it  may  be  put  in  the  barn  with  more  of  its  own 


ALFALFA 


113 


moisture  than  almost  any  other  hay  crop.     If  allowed  to 
get  too  dry  before  hauling  in  it  will  lose  many  leaves,  and 


Fig.   57. — Push  power 


they  are  the  best  part  of  the  crop.  With  a  little  care  alfalfa 
can  be  cured  in  perfect  condition,  because  the  time  required 
for  curing:  is  not  long  (Figs.  57,  58). 


\lit^'        .  .-iSkfCiftM-t''*^ 


Fk..  king  iiiacluue.    T' ,:ike(Fig. 

85)  and  imeu  hj  me  siack  by  liorse-power.     iNoiice  tue  nurses  ux  me  end  oi  the  rope. 
(Plant  Industry.) 

Ten  Alfalfa  Rules. — For  the  sake  of  brevity  let  us  sum- 
marize the  chief  points  in  alfalfa  management.    The  following 
ten  rules  are  quite  comprehensive. 
8 


114  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

1.  Lime  the  soil  by  applying  about  one  ton  of  lime  per 
acre  just  before  sowing  the  seed. 

2.  Inoculate  the  new  alfalfa  field  by  spreading  and  har- 
rowing in  about  five  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of  good  soil 
from  an  old  alfalfa  field  when  the  sun  is  not  shining. 

3.  Have  the  soil  sls  free  from  weed  seed  as  possible  by  using 
a  bare  fallow  for  a  few  weeks  before  seeding. 

4.  Be  sure  that  the  alfalfa  seed  is  perfectly  pure  and  free 
from  weed  seeds. 

5.  Use  plenty  of  seed,  about  thirty  pounds  per  acre,  sow- 
ing it  both  length-wise  and  cross-wise  of  the  field. 

6.  Use  good  fertile  soil  and  apply  some  high-grade  fertilizer 
about  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed. 

7.  Always  select  a  well-drained  field  for  alfalfa. 

8.  Cut  the  crop  often — about  four  times  a  year,  beginning 
with  the  spring  following  the  August  sowing. 

9.  Cure  the  hay  carefully  to  avoid  shattering  of  the  leaves 
and  to  avoid  its  getting  wet  with  rain. 

10.  Do  not  use  the  field  for  pasture,  particularly  while 
it  is  young. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  several  arguments  in  favor  of  growing  alfalfa. 

2.  Tell  of  the  use  of  alfalfa  as  a  green  dairy  feed. 

3.  In  what  ways  does  alfalfa  improve  the  soil  where  it  is  grown? 

4.  Give  three  benefits  of  a  few  weeks  of  bare  fallowing  before  the 
August  seeding  of  aKalfa. 

5.  Tell  how  a  new  alfalfa  field  may  be  inoculated  with  the  bacteria 
which  the  plants  need. 

6.  How  much  lime  should  be  spread,  and  when? 

7.  Give  time,  amount,  and  manner  of  seeding  alfalfa. 

8.  Which  is  better  for  alfalfa,  upland  or  lowland?    Why? 

9.  Tell  of  two  things  whJch  indicate  when  to  cut  alfalfa  for  hay. 

10.  Tell  one  difficulty  in  curing  alfalfa  hay;  and  mention  one  advan- 
tage over  other  kinds  of  hay,  in  its  curing. 

11.  Give  briefly  the  ten  points  covered  by  the  ten  alfalfa  rules. 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  77,  The  Liming  of  Soils; 
194,  Alfalfa  Seed;  260,  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  its  Impurities;  306, 
Dodder  in  Relation  to  Farm  Seeds;  339,  Alfalfa;  373,  Irrigation  of 
Alfalfa;  382,  Adulteration  of  Forage-plant  Seeds. 


COTTON  115 


CHAPTER  XII. 


COTTON  PRODUCTION. 

The  cotton  plant  was  cultivated  in  the  Old  World  in 
the  earliest  historic  times.  It  probably  originated  in  India 
or  China.  The  ancients  of  India  wove  the  fiber  into  very 
good  cloth.  Alexander  the  Great  introduced  the  plant  into 
Europe.  Cotton  was  also  grown  by  the  natives  of  Mexico 
and  South  America  before  the  discovery  of  the  New  World 
by  Columbus. 

To  Virginia  belongs  the  credit  of  first  starting  the  culti- 
vation of  cotton  in  the  American  Colonies.  This  was  in  1621. 
After  that  it  rapidly  became  a  leading  money  crop  of  the 
farmers  of  the  South.  The  labor  of  removing  the  lint  from 
the  seeds  greatly  reduced  the  profit  from  this  crop  for  many 
years.  It  was  a  day's  labor  to  separate  the  seeds  from  one 
pound  of  cotton.  But  in  1792  the  cotton  gin  was  invented 
by  Eli  Whitney.  This  machine,  as  improved  later,  greatly 
increased  the  profits  of  cotton  raising. 

Importance  of  the  American  Cotton  Crop. — Cotton  is 
far  the  most  important  fiber  crop  of  the  world.  Twelve 
Southern  States  now  supply  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
cotton  of  the  world.  All  nations  make  clothing  from  Ameri- 
can cotton.  We  sell  more  cotton  to  other  countries  than  all 
other  agTicultural  products  combined. 

Other  countries  producing  large  amounts  of  cotton  are 
British  India,  Egypt,  Russia,  China,  Brazil,  Mexico,  Peru, 
Turkey  and  Persia.  But  all  of  these  combined  produce 
only  one-half  as  much  cotton  as  is  grown  in  the  United  States. 

The  ten  leading  States  in  the  production  of  cotton  are 
in  the  following  order:  Texas,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  Ala- 
bama, South  Carolina,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  North  Carolina, 
Louisiana  and  Tennessee. 

Uses  of  Cotton. — The  fibers  of  the  commonest  cotton 
are  only  about  one  inch  long,  but  they  become  very  much 


116 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


twisted  as  they  ripen  (Fig.  59a).  This  twist  causes  them  to 
cHng  together  well  to  form  thread  when  put  through  the 
spinning  process  (Fig.  596).    The  thread  may  then  be  woven 


Courtesy  of  Johnson  &  Johnson. 


Fia.  59a. — Individual  fibers  of  long-staple  or  Sea  Island  cotton.  The  lengths 
of  the  five  are  about  equal.     The  ripest  are  very  kinky.    (After  Brooks.) 

Fig.  596. — Slivers  or  hanks  of  cotton  in  different  steps  of  making  thread  or 
yarn.  The  factory  names  are:  1,  drawing  hank;  2,  slubbing  hank;  3,  intermediate 
hank;  4,  roving  hank;  5,  yarn  or  thread. 


Fig.  •  I     lorn  looms,  all  weaving  white  cotton  cloth.    One  person  can  sepa- 

rate twelve  to  sixteen  such  looms  at  a  time.  Each  machine  makes  seven  square 
yards  of  cloth  per  hour,  using  3,024  yards  of  yarn  to  each  yard  of  cloth. 

into  cloth  (Fig.  60),  or  formed  into  rope.  The  longest  fibers 
of  lint  are  desirable  for  use  in  making  sewjng  thread,  and  in 
mixing  with  the  shorter  fibers  in  certain  grades  of  cloth. 


COTTON  117 

Exercise. — Examine  the  fibers  of  cotton  from  a  cotton 
boll  or  from  a  roll  of  cotton.  Notice  how  minute  they  are 
when  seen  separately.  Try  twisting  a  few  of  the  fibers  to- 
gether to  form  a  thread.  Pull  them  along  as  you  twist  them 
and  they  will  gather  up  more  fibers  from  the  pile  of  cotton. 

The  Cotton's  Relatives. — The  cotton  plant  belongs  to 
the  same  family  of  plants  as  the  hollyhocks,  okra,  althea, 
mallow  weed,  and  many  others.  The  group  is  called  the 
mallow  family. 

Types  of  Cotton. — There  are  several  different  types  or 
kinds  of  cotton.  Those  grown  in  the  United  States  are  all 
annual,  that  is,  they  are  all  killed  by  freezing  in  the  fall ;  but 
in  tropical  countries  they  live  for  many  years.  Even  here 
the  plants  sprout  up  from  the  old  root  after  a  mild  winter. 

Cotton  grown  in  this  country  is  chiefly  of  three  kinds: 
(1)  Common  or  Short-staple  upland  cotton,  (2)  Long-staple  up- 
land cotton,  and  (3)  Sea  Island  cotton  (Fig.  59a).  Important 
kinds  grown  elsewhere  are  (1)  India  cotton,  with  very  short 
staple,  (2)  true  Peruvian  or  Egyptian  cotton,  with  long 
staple,  usually  brownish  in  color. 

American  Upland  Cotton. — As  shown  above,  the  upland 
cotton  is  of  two  kinds,  short-staple  and  long-staple.  Together 
these  make  up  all  of  the  American  cotton  crop,  except  the 
Sea  Island  cotton,  grown  in  small  amounts,  chiefly  near  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts. 

Short-staple  differs  from  long-staple  cotton  in  length  of 
the  lint  which  surrounds  the  seeds.  Short-staple  is  from 
%  to  1%  inches  long  (Fig.  61),  and  long-staple  is  usually  1%  to 
1%  inches  long.  These  varieties  may  also  differ  in  other 
ways.  The  long-staple  plants  are  taller,  later  in  maturing 
and  have  slender,  pointed  bolls,  with  less  lint.  But  the  long- 
staple  sells  for  a  higher  price. 

Sea  Island  Cotton. — This  gets  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  it  originated  in  the  West  India  Islands.  It  grows  well 
on  the  islands  and  mainland  within  one  hundred  miles  of 
the  coast.    Georgia,  South  Carolina  and  Florida  are  increas- 


118 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


ing  the  growth  of  the  Sea  Island  cotton.  The  price  of  this 
type  of  cotton  is  high  because  of  the  great  value  of  such  long 
fibers  in  making  spool  cotton  for  sewing.  This  plant  grows 
rather  taller  than  upland  cotton,  has  long,  flexible  branches; 


Courtesy  of  Johnson  &  Johnson,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 
Fig.  61. — Four  grades  of  lint,  showing  length  of  fiber,  from  samples  of  short- 


staple   upland   cotton. 
the  photograph. 


The  relative  amounts  are  also  indicated  by  the  masses  in 


the  leaves  are  more  deeply  lobed;  the  flowers  are  j^ellow 
instead  of  white  when  freshly  opened;  the  staple  is  longer, 
and  the  seeds  are  free  from  lint  after  ginning. 


COTTON  119 

Improvement  of  Cotton. — Cotton  growers  are  able  to 
improve  their  crops  very  greatly  by  the  proper  selection  of 
varieties  and  selection  of  seed  from  heavy  yielding  plants. 

As  usually  grown  here  the  plant  is  either  erect  or  bushy 
and  varies  in  height  from  three  to  eight  feet.  The  length 
and  arrangement  of  branches  are  indications  of  earliness  and 
productiveness.  Cotton  itself  has  other  desirable  qualities, 
such  as  strength  of  lint,  fineness,  and  uniformity  of  color.  Im- 
provement of  cotton  is  best  accomplished  by  selecting  seed 
from  plants  with  such  desirable  qualities. 

The  yields  of  cotton  may  be  greatly  increased  by  proper 
fertilizers,  good  rotations,  early  planting,  securing  a  good 
stand  of  plants  and  frequent  tillage. 

Selecting  Seed.— The  grower  should  select  the  seed  just  be- 
fore or  during  the  second  picking,  and  avoid  planting  seed  from 
later  pickings.  Select  bolls  from  thrifty  plants  with  compact 
growth  of  branches.  The  branches  should  have  short  nodes  or 
joints  and  be  abundantly  supplied  with  bolls.  Always  select 
the  largest  bolls  with  long  fiber.  Avoid  picking  for  seed  from 
any  imhealthy  plants.  Avoid  also  those  bolls  where  the  cottbn 
tends  to  fall  to  the  ground,  as  such  are  not  "storm  proof." 

If  a  grower  is  to  purchase  cotton  seed  for  planting,  he 
should  select  such  varieties  as  will  best  resist  disease.  Varieties 
of  upland  cotton  most  abundantly  planted  are  Peterkin,  Truitt 
and  Russell.  In  Texas,  where  the  boll-worm  and  boll- weevil 
insects  are  present,  Triumph  is  commonly  grown.  Other  pro- 
ductive varieties  suited  to  special  soils  or  seasons  are :  King, 
Cook,  Cleveland,  Toole,  and  Layton.  The  Alabama  Experi- 
ment Station  reports  over  200  varieties  of  cotton  grown  there. 

It  is  usually  best  for  growers  to  select  their  own  seed  for 
planting.  In  every  field  the  plants  vary  through  all  degrees 
from  very  good  to  very  poor.  By  carefully  selecting  as  above 
suggested  the  next  crop  can  be  greatly  improved. 

Range  of  Cotton. — Cotton  needs  a  long  growing  season, 
with  six  or  more  months  of  warm  growing  weather  free  from 
frosts.    This  condition  is  found  chiefly  south  of  latitude  37°. 


120  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

It  is  desirable  to  have  an  abundant  rainfall  evenly  distributed 
through  the  growing  season,  but  with  plenty  of  sunshine  at 
least  during  the  ripening  months. 

Soil. — Cotton  prefers  a  medium  loam,  but  will  thrive  in 
almost  any  good  farm  soil  if  the  conditions  of  temperature 
and  rainfall  are  favorable.  The  soil  should  be  deep,  as  the 
plant  has  a  tap  root  and  is  a  deep  feeder.  If  there  be  a  clay 
subsoil  it  should  be  down  about  two  feet  from  the  surface. 
Good  drainage  is  important,  but  there  should  be  enough 
humus  present  to  cause  the  soil  to  hold  moisture  well.  When 
cotton  is  grown  each  year  on  the  same  field  it  is  well  to  grow 
some  crop  for  green  manure  between  the  rows  of  cotton,  to 
be  plowed  under  in  the  fall  or  the  next  spring.  Such  crops 
might  be  cow  peas,  peanuts,  or  soy  beans.  As  legumes  to 
grow  all  winter  in  the  cotton  field  it  is  well  to  use  crimson 
clover,  and  winter  vetch,  which  may  be  sown  in  the  cotton 
field  in  early  fall,  or  just  after  the  fall  plowing  (Fig.  48). 

On  poor  sandy  soil  the  rust  disease  of  cotton  is  worse 
than  on  loams  or  heavy  soils.  If  the  soil  is  too  rich,  as  along 
some  rivers,  the  cotton  plants  grow  large  and  coarse  without 
developing  much  cotton. 

Preparation  of  Soils. — Unless  there  is  a  winter  cover  crop 
growing  in  the  field,  it  is  best  to  plow  the  soil  for  cotton  in 
the  fall.  This  helps  to  get  rid  of  the  boll-worm  and  boll- 
weevil,  sprouts  the  waste  cotton  seed  in  time  to  be  killed 
by  freezing,  and  the  old  stalks  are  turned  under  in  time  to 
decay  and  form  humus. 

When  cotton  was  grown  on  the  field  the  preceding  year, 
the  disposal  of  the  stalks  and  litter  is  a  serious  difficulty. 
Sometimes  they  are  pulled  and  burned,  but  this  is  bad 
practice.  It  is  better  to  beat  the  stalks  to  pieces  on  a  frosty 
day,  or  drag  them  down  with  a  heavy  iron  bar,  or  cut  them  to 
pieces  with  a  stalk  cutter  made  for  the  purpose.  After  they 
are  broken  or  cut  to  pieces  they  may  be  readily  plowed  under. 

The  plowing  should  be  thorough  and  complete,  and  the 
deeper  the  better  if  no  bad  soil  is  brought  to  the  surface  by 


COTTON  121 

so  doing.  If  this  broadcast  plowing  is  done  in  the  fall,  the 
soil  may  be  plowed  up  into  ridges  or  beds  in  the  spring  ready 
for  planting.  The  best  cotton  growers  are  rapidly  adopting 
this  plan  of  "  double  preparation  ''  of  the  soil — first  plowing 
and  then  ridging.  A  crop  of  green  manure  may  be  grown  on 
the  land  after  the  fall  plowing.  This  is  particularly  desirable 
if  the  soil  is  very  light.  Small  grains,  winter  vetch  or 
crimson  clover  may  be  used. 

The  ridges  may  be  formed  in  spring  either  with  a  turn- 
ing plow  or  with  a  disk-harrow  if  the  field  has  been  first 
plowed  in  the  fall.  The  plan  of  forming  low  ridges  or  beds 
with  the  disk-harrow  is  better,  more  rapid  and  less  expensive. 

The  rows  for  planting  are  marked  off  with  a  shovel  plow 
and  commercial  fertilizer  is  usually  distributed  in  this  row. 
Simple  drills  are  also  in  use  which  form  the  furrow,  spread 
the  fertilizer  and  then  draw  some  soil  over  it. 

Fertilizers  for  Cotton. — The  crop  of  cotton  itself  is  not 
hard  on  the  soil  if  the  cotton  seeds  or  their  equivalent  be 
returned  to  the  field.  The  cotton  seed  is  fed  to  stock  and 
the  stable  manure  is  returned  to  the  field  without  much 
loss  in  fertility.  If  the  seed  is  sold,  the  grower  should  buy 
enough  fertilizer  to  take  its  place.  For  every  100  pounds  of 
cotton  seed  sold  a  return  should  be  made  of  3  pounds  nitro- 
gen, 1  pound  phosphoric  acid  and  1%  pounds  potash.  In 
addition  to  this  a  liberal  allowance  should  be  made  for  losses 
from  the  soil  by  washing  and  leaching.  If  green  manures 
are  used  by  growing  legumes,  the  nitrogen  supply  will  be 
kept  up  and  humus  will  be  formed.  Most  cotton  soils  have 
an  abundance  of  potash;  but  they  respond  readily  to  increased 
applications  of  phosphoric  acid,  increasing  the  yield  of  bolls 
and  lint,  and  forcing  earlier  ripening.  Too  much  nitrogen 
may  cause  a  rank,  "  weedy  "  growth  with  little  cotton.  Too 
much  potash  delays  the  ripening  of  the  crop. 

Planting. — The  distance  between  cotton  rows  is  3K  to  4 
feet,  and  12  to  18  inches  are  allowed  between  plants  in  the 
row.    Allow  about  1  to  1%  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  to  insure 


122  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

a  good  stand  of  plants.  Planting  begins  about  two  weeks 
later  than  the  date  of  the  last  killing  frost.  March  10th  or 
15th  is  often  the  time  for  beginning  the  planting  near  the 
Gulf  coast;  April  1st  to  10th  near  the  central  latitude  of 
the  cotton  belt;  and  early  May  in  the  northern  limits  of 
cotton  growing. 

There  are  several  forms  of  cotton  planters  which  are  not 
expensive.  A  good  machine  will  drop  the  seed  uniformly  in 
a  small  furrow  and  cover  it  with  an  inch  or  two  of  soil. 

Exercise. — Let  some  member  of  the  class  write  to  the 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  at  Washington,  and  get  a  table  or 
report  which  will  show  the  dates  for  the  last  spring  frosts 
for  a  number  of  years  past.  From  this  report  let  the  class 
determine  the  best  date  for  beginning  the  planting  of  cotton. 

Cultivation. — A  weeder  or  light  harrow  should  be  used 
over  the  field  before  planting  and  also  after  planting.  This 
broadcast  tillage  will  prevent  small  weeds  from  getting  started 
ahead  of  the  cotton  plants  and  will  also  prevent  the  soil 
from  becoming  crusted.  A  weeder  should  also  be  used  over 
the  young  cotton  plants  just  before  the  thinning  process 
begins.  This  may  not  be  advisable  if  the  stand  is  thin  or 
the  ground  very  stony  or  otherwise  rough.  Thinning  of  the 
plants  is  usually  necessary.  This  is  done  by  chopping  out  the 
surplus  plants  with  heavy  hoes.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  culti- 
vate the  individual  rows,  setting  the  shovels  to  throw  the  soil 
away  from  the  plants,  just  before  the  thinning  or  chopping 
begins.  Subsequent  cultivation  should  move  the  soil  back 
toward  the  plants.  The  cultivation  should  be  frequent  and 
shallow.  It  is  continued  until  about  time  for  picking  to 
begin.  When  the  plants  completely  shade  the  soil,  a  crust  is 
not  apt  to  form  and  further  cultivation  is  not  so  necessary. 

Harvesting. — Although  several  machines  have  been 
invented  for  harvesting  cotton,  none  have  come  into  general 
use,  and  the  cotton  crop  is  picked  by  hand.  It  is  the  most 
expensive  part  of  cotton  production  (Fig.  62).  The  price 
paid  to  pickers  varies  from  40  to  80  cents  per  hundred  pounds 


COTTON  123 

of  seed  cotton,  or  about  six  to  twelve  dollars  per  bale  of  500 
pounds  of  cotton.  A  picker  can  readily  average  200  pounds 
of  seed  cotton  per  day.  The  fields  have  to  be  gone  over 
several  times  as  the  bolls  do  not  all  ripen  at  once.  The  har- 
vesting of  cotton  runs  through  September,  October  and 
November,  and  should  be  finished  before  December. 

The  most  productive  fields  will  grow  more  than  two  bales 
per  acre,  and  many  more  fields  exceed  one  bale  per  acre. 


Courtesy  of  Johnson  iV  Joimsi  ri,  New  lirunsuick,  N.  J. 

Fig.  G2. — A  typical  cotton-picking  scene. 

but  in  spite  of  these  high  yields  the  average  for  the  cotton 
belt  is  only  200  pounds  or  two-fifths  of  a  bale  per  acre. 

On  the  United  States  "  demonstration  '^  farms  in  South 
Carolina  the  recent  average  yield  per  acre  was  nearly  600 
pounds,  while  on  similar  farms  in  that  State  the  average  was 
less  than  half  as  much.  The  yield  in  Louisiana,  due  to  the 
United  States  "  demonstration  "  methods,  was  increased  from 
380  up  to  760  pounds  per  acre.  These  facts  show  the  value 
of  studying  and  using  better  methods  in  cotton  production. 

Problem. — A  man  increased  his  cotton  yield  from  200  up 
to  800  pounds  per  acre  by  selecting  seed  properly.  The 
extra  cost  for  such  work  may  be  estimated  at  75  cents  per 
acre.  If  he  grows  22  acres  of  cotton,  what  is  his  profit 
due  to  seed  selection,  the  selling  price  being  10  cents  per 


124  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

pound?  (Consider  the  extra  work  of  picking  and  ginning  as 
balanced  by  the  increased  seed  yield.) 

Preparation  for  Market. — ^A  public  ginnery  is  usually 
found  in  any  section  where  cotton  is  raised.  The  seed  cotton 
is  hauled  from  the  field  to  the  cotton  gin.  The  suction  pipes 
lift  it  from  the  wagons  and  take  it  to  the  gin  stand,  where 
it  is  taken  over  fine-toothed  revolving  circular  saws.  These 
saws  separate  the  lint  from  the  seeds,  which  are  kept  from 
passing  along  over  the  revolving  saws  by  means  of  long 
stationary  teeth  or  combs.  The  seeds  may  be  stored  in  a 
seed  room  of  the  ginnery  or  may  be  returned  directly  to 
the  grower's  wagon.  The  white  lint  (Fig.  63)  is  carried  by 
the  machine  into  a  large  hydraulic  press,  where  it  is  covered 
with  coarse  bagging  and  bound  by  iron  bands  into  bales  of 
about  500  pounds  each  (Fig.  64). 

Baled  cotton  is  too  often  exposed  for  months  without 
shelter  from  the  weather.  This  may  darken  and  weaken  the 
outer  layers  and  reduce  the  seUing  price  of  it  all. 

Most  cotton  intended  for  shipment  a  long  distance  is  put 
through  a  compressor  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  bales. 

Market  Grades  of  Cotton. — The  price  paid  for  cotton  at 
any  time  is  governed  by  the  grade  or  quahty.  The  grade 
is  determined  by  samples  taken  from  the  bales.  When  a 
grower  sells  his  cotton,  the  buyer  usually  does  the  grading. 
The  seven  principal  market  grades  of  cotton  in  order  of 
value  are:  (1)  fair;  (2)  middle  fair;  (3)  good  middling;  (4) 
middling;  (5)  low  middling;  (6)  good  ordinary;  and  (7)  ordi- 
nary. There  are  sub-divisions  of  these  principal  grades  which 
are  designated  by  prefixing  sUch  terms  as  "strict,''  "fully," 
or  "barely."  Most  of  our  American  cotton  is  poorer  than 
middling  fair,  and  grades  as  high  or  higher  than  middling. 

By=products  of  Cotton. — The  chief  by-product  of  the 
cotton  crop  is  cottonseed.  This  is  now  used  for  several 
purposes.  The  hulls  are  removed  by  machinery.  Oil  is 
extracted  from  the  kernels  by  cooking  and  pressing.  Cotton 
oil  is  used  in  making  salad  oils,  cottolene,  oleomargarine. 


COTTON 


125 


jrtesy  Johnson  iV  Johnson 


Fig.  63. — Inside  view  of  ginnery,  showing  sheet  of  loose  cotton  lint  as  it  comes  from 
the  cotton  gin,  just  before  baling. 


Photo,  by  Russell,  Anniston,  Ala.    Courtes> 


Fig.  64. — A  local  cotton  market  in  Alabama,  »injvviag  common  form  of  bales.     The 
cotton  is  too  often  thus  exposed  to  weather  without  shelter  for  several  months. 


126  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

soaps,  and  other  articles.  The  remaining  part  of  the  seed 
after  pressing  out  the  oil  is  ground  into  cottonseed  meal  and 
used  for  stock  feed,  particularly  for  dairy  cows.  (See  com- 
position in  Appendix  Table  VIII.)  It  is  also  used  as  a  fer- 
tihzer  as  it  is  so  rich  in  nitrogen.  The  hulls  are  also  used  for 
stock  feed  and  fertilizer. 

•  In  gjnning  the  cotton  for  one  bale,  nearly  1000  pounds 
of  seed  are  obtained.  This  amount  of  seed  at  the  oil  mill 
will  produce  about  the  following  numbers  of  pounds:  Oil 
150;  cottonseed  hulls  400;  cottonseed  meal  375;  linters, 
trash,  and  dirt  75. 

The  fibers  of  the  stems  and  branches  of  the  cotton  plant 
are  sometimes  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  grades  of 
bagging. 

Diseases  of  Cotton. — Cotton  wilt,  cotton  rust  and  cotton 
root-knot  are  the  most  common  diseases  likely  to  affect  the 
crop  if  it  is  grown  year  after  year  on  the  same  soil.  If  a 
good  rotation  of  crops  is  kept  up  as  with  corn,  wheat,  and 
legumes,  there  is  little  danger  from  disease. 

Insect  Enemies. — The  cotton  plant  is  not  seriously 
affected  with  insects  except  in  the  squares  and  bolls.  Two 
insects  do  most  of  this  damage,  the  boll-weevil  and  the 
boll-worm. 

The  Mexican  boll=weevil  has  now  spread  over  the  south- 
eastern and  central  parts  of  Texas,  much  of  Louisiana  and 
the  adjacent  portions  of  Mississippi,  Arkansas  and  Oklahoma. 
The  area  is  increasing  rapidly.  In  those  sections  only  such 
farmers  as  practice  the  best  methods  of  cotton  culture  are 
able  to  continue  raising  the  crop  successfully.  As  this  insect 
spreads  over  the  cotton  belt  it  causes  much  change  in  the 
methods  of  growing  the  crop. 

When  the  insect  appears  in  early  summer,  it  first  attacks 
the  buds  and  the  flower  leaves,  called  "squares''  (Fig.  65a). 
These  soon  fall  to  the  ground.  The  earliest  buds  may  escape 
the  injury  and  develop  bolls  and  cotton.    . 


COTTON 


127 


There  are  several  methods  of  preventing  damage  from 
boil-weevil : 


^^^ 


I  Smith's  Economic  Entomology. 

L  Fig.   65a. — Cotton  square,  showing  boll-weevil  imposition.     Natural  size, 

r      (After  Hunter.) 

t  Fig.  656. — Cotton-worm  from  side  and  above. 

I  1.  By  forcing  the  cotton  crop  to  early  maturity  much 

of  the  loss  due  to  weevils  is  overcome.    The  grower  should 


128  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

force  his  crop  to  set  many  bolls  before  weevils  are  abundant. 
Only  the  late  buds  will  then  receive  the  attack  of  the  enemy. 

Forcing  is  done  in  several  ways : 

(a)  Prepare  the  soil  thoroughly  and  early. 

(6)  Plant  early  and  use  enough  seed  for  a  good  stand  of 
plants. 

(c)    Cultivate  often  during  the  growing  season. 

{d)  Grow  varieties  which  set  bolls  early. 

{e)   Select  seed  from  early  fruiting  plants. 

(/)    Apply  phosphoric  acid  fertilizer  liberally. 

2.  Pick  the  cotton  crop  as  early  as  may  be,  and  immedi- 
ately destroy  the  entire  field  of  plants  for  the  purpose  of 
starving  the  weevils  several  weeks  before  cold  weather  drives 
them  into  winter  quarters  under  trash.  The  prompt  destruc- 
tion of  the  plants  after  harvest  may  be  done  in  either  of  two 
ways :  (a)  cattle  may  be  turned  into  the  field  in  such  num- 
bers as  to  eat  all  leaves  and  young  growth,  after  which  the 
stalks  are  promptly  cut  up  and  plowed  under  well.  (6)  The 
stalks  may  be  pulled  and  burned. 

3.  Poisoning  the  early  spring  weevils  on  the  growing  tips 
of  cotton  plants  is  sometimes  tried.  For  this  purpose  arsenate 
of  lead  is  appUed  in  the  form  of  powder  at  the  rate  of  2%. 
pounds  per  acre.  This  must  be  done  before  the  appearance 
of  the  first  squares. 

4.  Buds  and  squares  which  fall  to  the  ground  from  the 
attacks  of  weevils  should  be  caused  to  wilt  very  soon  and 
thus  prevent  the  further  development  of  the  insects  which 
would  soon  form  another  brood.  The  wilting  may  be  has- 
tened by  planting  the  rows  far  enough  apart  to  let  sunshine  in 
freely.  The  wilting  is  also  increased  by  dragging  the  buds  and 
squares  to  the  open  sunhght  of  the  *' middle."  This  is  done 
by  the  use  of  a  special  chain  cultivator  devised  for  the  purpose. 

The  boll-worm  (Fig.  656)  does  not  confine  its  attention 
to  cotton,  but  prefers  young  corn  and  tomatoes  (Fig.  66). 
It  is  the  same  insect  which  we  call  the  corn  "ear-worm." 


COTTON 


129 


Smith's  Economic  Entomology.  ~"  "~ 

Fig.  66.— Work  of  cotton-worm  or  corn  ear-worm,  on  corn  and  tomato 

9 


130  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

After  the  nearby  corn  crops  have  passed  the  tender  stage  of 
the  ears  the  future  broods  attack  the  squares  and  bolls  of 
the  cotton  field. 

The  best  remedies  are  based  upon  this  habit  of  the 
insects : 

1.  Produce  an  early  crop  by  the  methods  already  sug- 
gested. Thus  the  cotton  crop  will  be  too  far  advanced  to 
be  injured  when  the  attacks  of  the  boll-worms  begin. 

2.  Use  com  as  a  trap  crop  by  planting  at  several  different 
times,  either  near  the  cotton  field  or  alternating  three  rows 
with  every  thirty  rows  of  cotton.  As  the  corn  passes  the 
tender  stage  it  may  be  fed  to  cows,  and  the  young  insects 
thus  destroyed  (Fig.  66). 

3.  Plow  the  fields  in  the  fall  to  destroy  the  winter 
quarters  of  boll-worms. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Tell  something  of  the  early  history  of  cotton  growing. 

2.  How  did  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  help  the  cotton  in- 
dustry of  the  world? 

3.  Name  the  leading  cotton  growing  States  of  America. 

4.  In  what  ways  are  the  other  States  of  the  Union  interested  in 
this  great  crop? 

5.  What  fraction  of  the  world's  crop  do  we  produce? 

6.  What  other  countries  are  important  cotton  producers? 

7.  What  three  types  of  cotton  do  we  grow? 

8.  Describe  the  best  climate  and  best  soil  for  cotton. 

9.  Give  some  reasons  for  plowing  cotton  fields  in  the  fall. 

10.  Give  other  steps  in  the  preparation  of  soil  for  cotton  planting. 

11.  Tell  of  the  uses  of  a  weeder  on  a  cotton  field. 

12.  Give  distances  and  methods  of  planting  cotton. 

13.  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  picking  of  cotton. 

14.  How  does  a  cotton  gin  pick  the  Hnt  from  the  seeds? 

15.  Mention  the  seven  principal  market  grades  of  cotton;  which 
three  are  most  commonly  produced  here? 

16.  Mention  several  uses  of  the  different  by-products  of  the  cotton 
crop. 

17.  What  is  the  best  remedy  for  the  cotton  diseases  mentioned? 

18.  Where  is  the  Mexican  boll-weevil  now  most  destructive? 

19.  Mention  four  ways  of  combating  this  insect. 

20.  Mention  six  ways  of  forcing  an  early  cotton  crop. 

21.  Give  three  ways  of  fighting  the  boll-worm. 

References. — United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins:  36,  Cotton  Seed  and 
Its  Products;  290,  The  Cotton  Boll-worm;  302,  Sea  Island  Cotton;  326, 
Building  up  a  Rundown  Cotton  Plantation;  333,  Cotton  Wilt;  344,  The 
BoU-Weevil  Problem;  364,  A  Profitable  Cotton  Farm.  Also  Bulletin 
33  of  the  U.  S.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  on  the  Cotton  Plant. 


CORN  131 


CHAPTER  XIIL 
CORN. 

The  Corn  Crop. — Com  is  king  and  alfalfa  is  queen.  These 
two  crops  go  together  very  well.  On  dairy  farms,  where 
these  two  crops  are  raised  for  the  stock,  we  find  very  little 
outside  feed  is  purchased.  They  cut  down  the  feed  bills 
enormously.  Too  few  farmers  in  the  dairy  sections  are 
trying  alfalfa;  and  too  many  farmers  are  not  doing  their 
best  even  in  the  corn  fields. 

Winter  is  the  time  to  make  plans  for  the  com  crop  for 
the  following  spring.  If  the  seed  is  not  already  on  hand  it 
should  be  secured  then  and  tested  for  its  germinating  powers. 
Winter  is  a  good  time  to  plan  the  fields  and  decide  how  much 
com  ground  will  be  used  for  production  of  green  forage, 
how  much  for  ensilage,  if  any,  and  how  much  for  winter 
fodder  and  ears. 

Types  of  Cora. — The  four  main  types  of  com  raised  in 
America  are  pop  corn,  sweet  corn,  flint  corn,  and  dent  com. 
The  two  last  are  both  spoken  of  as  field  corn. 

Flint  Corn  has  a  hard  kernel  which  is  short  and  rounded, 
with  no  dent  in  the  top.  There  are  only  a  few  rows  of  kernels 
on  the  cob,  eight  rows  being  quite  common.  Flint  com 
matures  quickly  and  is  often  grown  where  the  warm  season 
is  short.  There  are  several  colors  and  a  number  of  varieties 
(Fig.  67,  Nos.  4,  10,  12,  14). 

Dent  Corn  has  a  longer  kernel  with  a  dent  in  the  crown 
or  top.  The  ears  are  large  and  the  yield  per  acre  is  greater 
than  with  any  other  type.  The  many  varieties  or  breeds  of 
dent  corn  vary  in  color,  length  of  season  for  ripening,  shape 
of  kernel,  size,  shape  and  length  of  ear,  character  of  stalks, 
and  in  other  ways.    White  and  yellow  are  the  commonest 


132 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


colors.  The  people  in  certain  sections  prefer  white  varieties, 
while  in  others  the  yellow  corn  is  grown  entirely.  Corn  does 
not  vary  in  quality  because  of  its  color,  but  when  white  or 
yellow  meal  is  preferred  in  certain  markets  the  millers  will 
buy  corn  of  that  color  only. 

Exercise. — Kinds  of  Corn. — Have  some  of  the  best 
samples  of  the  different  types  of  corn  brought  to  school  by 
pupils.  The  ears  should  be  wrapped  in  paper  to  prevent 
shelling.  These  may  be  compared  and  studied  by  use  of 
a  score  card.    Save  the  ears  for  future  use  in  corn  testing. 


Fio.  67. — Com  kernels  of  different  shapes.    Niimber  3  is  or.' 
cultural  Education.) 


it.    (Agri- 


Rules  for  Selecting  or  Judging  Corn. — Seed  corn  should 
always  be  purchased  on  the  cob  if  possible.  Then  we  can 
tell  whether  the  ears  are  of  the  type  we  want,  or  not.  Too 
often  the  shelled  corn  we  get  comes  from  ears  we  would  ijot 
try  to  grow  if  we  saw  them. 

The  following  explanation  of  points  should  be  used  in 
selecting  corn  for  seed,  and  also  in  judging,  corn  at  exhibits. 


CORN 


135 


The  corn  exhibits  may  be  held  at  school  each  winter  and 
the  score  card  used  by  the  students  and  the  judges.  Ten 
ears  of  corn  will  constitute  a  sample. 

1.  Trueness  to  Type  or  Breed  Characteristics. — All  the 
ears  selected  should  possess  similar  or  like  characteristics, 
and  should  be  true  to  the  variety  which  they  represent 
(Fig.  68) .  Two  representative  kernels  should  be  taken  from 
each  ear  and  placed  germ  side  up  in  front  of  the  ear  and 
studied  in  connection  with  type  in  the  ear. 


Fig.  68. — A.  Exhibit  of  Boys'  Experiment  Club  in  Nebraska.     (Agricultural  Educa- 
tion.)    B.  Prize-winning  com  and  the  boy  who  grew  it.     (O.  B,  M.) 


2.  Shape  of  Ear. — In  shape  the  ears  should  conform  to 
variety  type.  Each  ear  should  be  full  and  strong  in  the  cen- 
tral portion  and  not  taper  too  rapidly  toward  the  tip.  This 
is  indicative  of  strong  constitution  and  good  yield  (Fig.  69). 

3.  Purity  of  Ear;  (a)  Grain. — In  color  the  kernels  should 
be  true  to  variety  and  free  from  mixture.  Difference  in 
shade  of  color,  as  light  or  dark  red,  white  or  cream  color, 
must  be  scored  according  to  variety  characteristics,  (h)  Cob. — 
An  ear  of  white  corn  should  have  a  white  cob;  yellow  corn 
should  have  a  red  cob;  if  mixed  mark  it  zero.  A  mixture 
reduces  the  value  of  the  corn  for  seed  purposes,  indicates 


134 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


lack  of  purity,  and  tends  toward  a  too  wide  variation  in  time 
of  maturity,  size,  and  shape  of  kernels  (Fig.  70). 

4.  Vitality  or  Seed  Condition. — Corn  should  be  in  good 
market  condition;  show  good  constitution,  and  be  capable 
of  producing  plants  of  strong  vigorous  growth  and  heavy 
yield.  All  indications  of  freezing  or  other  injury  from  expo- 
sure and  all  evidences  of  immaturity  show  poor  vitality. 
Corn  with  adhering  chaff,  or  a  black  tip,  caused  by  the  tip 
cap  adhering  to  the  cob,  is  not  in  good  condition. 


m^m^^m^Si 


Fig.  69. — Good  seed  com.  The  upper  ear  shows  good  even  rows  with  very 
narrow  spaces  between  rows  and  between  kernels.  Ihe  tips  of  the  cob  should  be 
covered  with  corn.  There  is  a  good  deep  impression  and  small  stem  shown  at  the 
left.  The  kernels  are  deep  as  compared  with  the  size  of  the  cob,  as  shown,  (U.  S. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  229.) 


5.  Tips. — Tips  (Fig.  69)  should  be  regular,  uniform,  and 
properly  proportioned  with  the  body  of  the  ear.  The  rows 
should  be  well  carried  out  and  the  kernels  conform  closely 
to  those  in  the  main  body  of  the  ear  in  shape  and  size.  The 
proportion  to  tip  covered  or  filled  must  be  considered.  Long 
pointed  tips  as  well  as  enlarged  or  double  tips  are  objection- 
able. 

6.  BiUts. — The  rows  of  kernels  (see  Fig.  69)  should  extend 
in  regular  order  over  the  butt,  leaving  a  deep  depression 


CORN 


135 


when  the  stem  is  removed.  Opened  and  swelled  butts, 
depressed  and  flat  butts  with  flattened  glazed  kernels  are 
objectionable. 

7.  Kernels. — (a)  The  kernels  should  be  uniform  in  size 
and  shape,  making  it  possible  so  to  grade  the  corn  as  to 
secure  even  dropping  by  the  planting  machine.  This  is 
essential  to  securing  a  good  stand.  Not  only  should  the 
kernels  be  uniform  on  the  individual  ear  but  they  should  be 


Fio.  70. — Large  cob  on  the  left  with  small  layer  of  corn.    Small  cob  on  the  right 
with  deep  layer  of  com. 


uniform  with  all  the  ears  selected.  (6)  The  shape  of  kernels 
should  be  such  that  their  edges  touch  from  tip  to  crown 
(see  Fig.  67,  3).  The  tip  portion  of  the  kernel  is  rich  in 
protein  and  oil,  and  hence  of  high  feeding  value.  Kernels 
with  large  germs  insure  strong,  yigorous  growth  as  well  as 
richness  in  quality  of  kernel.  Germs  should  be  large,  showing 
strength  and  high  feeding  value  (Figs.  71,  72). 

8.  Length  of  Ear. — The  length  of  the  ear  varies  according 
to  variety,  type  and  the  characteristics  sought  by  the  indi- 


136 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


vidual  farmer.  Uniformity  of  length  is  to  be  sought  in  a 
sample,  and  a  sample  having  even  length  of  ears  should 
score  higher  than  one  that  varies,  even  if  it  is  within  the  limits 
(Fig.  73).  The  usual  length  of  ears  for  the  northern  section 
for  dent  corn  is  7  to  9  inches;  central  section,  S}^  to  9J^ 
inches;  southern  section,  10  to  12  inches.     Very  long  ears 


Fig.  71. 


Fig.  72. 


Embryo] 


Fig.  71. — Sections  and  surface  views  of  kernels  of  com.  The  three  on  the  right 
show  large  germs  and  have  much  protein,  those  on  the  left  small  germs  and  less 
protein.     (Agricultural  Education.) 

Fig.  72. — Diagram  of  a  section  of  com  kernel,  enlarged,  showing  the  locations 
of  starch,  embryo,  horny  part  rich  in  protein,  and  the  protein  layer  under  the  hull. 
In  kernels  where  the  germ  is  large  and  the  homy  part  is  large  toward  the  tip  there 
is  much  protein.  Such  com  makes  the  best  feed  and  should  be  selected  when  choos- 
ing seed  com. 


are  objectionable,  as  they  usually  have  poor  butts  and  tips, 
shallow  kernels  and  hence  less  corn  on  the  cob.  Same  vari- 
eties produce  several  small  ears  on  each  stalk. 

9.  Circumference  of  Ear. — The  circumference  of  the  ear 
should  be  in  symmetry  with  its  length.  An  ear  too  great 
in  circumference  for  its  length  is  generally  slow  in  maturing, 
and  too  frequently  results  in  soft  corn.  Dimensions  for  the 
northern  section  for  dent  corn  are  6)^  to  7  inches  in  cir- 


CORN 


137 


cumference;  central  section,  6  %  to  7}^  inches;  southern 
section,  7  to  8  inches.  Measure  the  circumference  at  one- 
third  the  distance  from  the  butt  to  the  tip  of  the  ear. 

10.  (a)  Furrows  Between  Rows. — The  furrows  between  the 
rows  of  kernels  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  the  corn 
to  dry  readily,  but  not  so  large  as  to  lose  in  proportion  of 
corn  to  cob.  (6)  Space  Between  Tips  of  Kernels  at  Cob. — 
This  is  very  objectionable,  as  it  indicates  immaturitj^  poor 
constitution,  and  poor  feeding  value. 


Fig.  73. — Finest  com  in  the  world.     11  ipso  ten  ears  won  a  thousand-dollar  prize 
at  Omaha  in  1908.      (Agricultural  Education.) 


11.  Proportion  of  Corn  to  Cob. — Depth  of  kernels,  size  of 
cob,  maturity,  furrows  and  space  at  cob  all  affect  the  pro- 
portion. The  corn  may  be  selected  and  judged  by  those 
features.  But  if  scales  are  available  the  proportion  of  corn 
is  determined  by  weight.  In  determining  the  proportion 
of  corn  to  cob,  weigh  and  shell  an  average  ear  in  the  sample. 
Weigh  the  cob  and  subtract  from  the  weight  of  the  ear. 
This  will  give  the  weight  of  the  com;  divide  the  weight  of  the 
corn  by  the  total  weight  of  ear,  which  will  give  the  per  cent 
of  corn.  Per  cent  of  corn  should  be  from  86  to  87.  For  each 
per  cent  short  of  standard,  a  cut  of  one  and  one-half  points 
should  be  made. 


138  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  CORN  JUDGING. 

Perfect 
Score. 

1.  Trueness  to  Type  or  Breed  Characteristics 10 

2.  Shape  of  Ear 10 

3.  Purity  of  Ear.    (a)  Grain 5 

(6)  Cob 5 

4.  Vitality  or  Seed  Conditions 15 

5.  Tips 5 

6.  Butts 5 

7.  Kernels,    (a)  Uniformity 5 

(6)  Shape 10 

8.  Length  of  Ear 5 

9.  Circumference  of  Ear 5 

10.  (a)  Furrows  Between  Rows 5 

(b)  Space  Between  Tips  of  Kernels  at  Cob 5 

11.  Proportion  of  Corn  to  Cob 10 

Total  Points 100 

Testing  Seed  Corn. — No  farmer  can  ^afford  to  use  corn 
for  seed  which  is  not  the  best  he  can  get.  It  should  be  care- 
fully selected  along  the  lines  laid  down  in  the  rules  given  in 
this  chapter.  Then  it  should  be  subjected  to  a  germination 
test  of  the  individual  ears.  Any  method  that  will  enable  a 
corn  grower  to  know  the  percentage  of  germination  of  each 
individual  ear  of  corn  can  be  used  to  make  the  test.  If  you 
test  five  kernels  taken  from  different  parts  of  an  ear  of  corn 
and  two  of  them  do  not  germinate  and  three  do,  it  is  a  pretty 
good  indication  that  sixty  per  cent  of  the  kernels  of  the  ear 
will  grow  and  forty  per  cent  will  not.  This  means  that  four 
hundred  out  of  a  possible  one  thousand  kernels  of  that  ear 
will  fail  if  planted  in  the  field.  The  farmer  using  such  corn 
for  seed  would  get  only  a  sixty  per  cent  stand,  which  means 
a  very  poor  crop.  He  would  waste  two  days  out  of  every 
five  spent  in  cultivating  such  a  field,  because  two-fifths  of 
the  field  would  be  bare  ground. 

How  to  Test. — The  ears  of  corn  may  be  tested  as  clearly 
shown  in  Fig.  74.  First  arrange  a  germination  box;  any 
shallow  flat  box  will  do;  place  in  it  some  clean  wet  sand  or 
wet  sawdust  to   a   depth  of   about   one   inch  ( Fig.  75 ) . 


CORN 


139 


Mark  off  squares  two  by  two  inches  with  a  black  lead  pencil 
on  white  cloth;  number  these  squares  1,  2,  3,  etc.;  wet  the 
cloth  and  spread  it  over  the  wet  sawdust  so  the  numbers 
are  in  plain  view.    Next  number  all  the  ears  of  corn  by  using 


Fig.  74. — A  box  tester  for  seed  coro,  Uoon  muslin  cloth  squares  are  drawn  and 
numbered.  On  each  square  are  laid  five  kernels  from  an  ear  of  the  same  number. 
When  the  tester  is  filled,  the  sawdust  shown  at  the  left  is  placed  to  keep  the  grain  moist. 

little  squares  of  paper,  which  are  held  to  the  butt  end  of  the 
ears  with  small  nails  pushed  through  the  numbered  papers 
and  then  into  the  cobs.  Now  take  five  kernels  from  different 
parts  of  each  ear,  not  using  any  from  near  the  tip  nor  butt. 


Fig.  75. — A.  Testing  individual  ears  of  seed  com  by  the  moist  cloth  method. 
The  tray  is  ready  to  be  covered  with  another  wet  cloth  and  moist  sawdust. 
B.  The  tray  of  corn  shown  in  Fig.  A. 


Put  the  five  kernels  from  the  first  ear  on  the  first  square  of 
cloth,  and  so  on  for  the  rest  of  the  ears  (Fig.  75).  It  is  well 
to  place  the  germ  sides  upward  so  the  sprouts  will  show  well 
afterwards.     Coyer  the  kernels  with  a  plain  wet  cloth  and 


140  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

spread  over  it  a  layer  of  wet  sawdust.    Keep  the  box  in  a 
warm  room  for  two  weeks  or  less,  keeping  it  damp  all  the  time. 


Fig.  76. — Germination  test  of  com,  showing  healthy  and  weak  germination.  (Agri- 
cultural Education.) 

The  Results. — Raise  the  top  cloth  and  thus  remove  the 
upper  layer  of  sawdust.  Look  over  the  germination  cloth 
and  see  what  ears  fail  to  give  a  perfect  result.  These  should 
be  removed  and  not  used  for  seed  (Fig.  76). 

CORN  CULTURE. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  best  corn  growers  insist  on  the 
early  plowing  of  the  ground  for  corn,  unless  it  was  fall  plowed. 
It  should  be  plowed  a  month  or  six  weeks  before  the  date  of 
planting.  If  the  ground  was  in  sod,  the  disc  harrow  may  be 
used  soon  after  the  plow.  During  the  balance  of  the  time  the 
smoothing  harrow  should  be  used  every  ten  days  or  soon 
after  each  heavy  rain.  This  is  to  prevent  the  crusting  of 
the  ground  and  the  loss  of  moisture.  Each  harrowing  of  the 
ground  helps  to  keep  the  moisture  in  the  soil  where  it  will 
be  ready  for  the  roots  of  the  corn  next  smnmer  when  the  dry 
weather  sets  in. 

In  regions  where  the  soil  is  heavy  the  field  should  be  well 
stirred  up  again  just  before  planting,  using  a  spring-tooth 
harrow,  disc  harrow  or  a  pulverizer  set  very  deep. 


CORN 


141 


Methods  of  Planting. — Corn  is  usually  planted  either 
by  hand-power  planters  or  horse-power  planters.  The  depth 
to  plant  varies  with  the  quality  and  moisture  of  the  soil. 
In  a  moist  clay  loam  one  inch  is  deep  enough;  but  in  a  dry, 
sandy  soil  three  or  four  inches  is  better. 

Exercise. — Depth  to  Plant  Corn. — Plant  corn  at  several 
different  depths   in  two  kinds  of  soil,  one  rather  dry  and 
sandy,  the  other  heavy  and  rather  moist  (  Fig.  77  ) .      These 
should  be  in  two  separate  bottles  or  boxes. 
In  each  case,  note  the  time  required  for 
the  young  plants  to  reach  the  surface. 

Distances  for  Planting. — There  are 
three  ways  of  planting  for  three  different 
purposes. 

If  we  plan  to  cut  the  crop  for  green 
forage,  to  feed  in  summer  when  pastures 
become  dry  and  short,  we  should  drill  the 
corn  in  rows  so  the  stalks  will  stand  three 
or  four  inches  apart  all  along  the  rows. 
This  plan  will  produce  an  immense  ton- 
nage of  green  feed  for  summer  use,  but 
the  yield  of  ears  will  be  Ught.  (See 
Chap.  VI.)  A  southern  white  variety 
would  be  good  for  this  purpose. 

If  we  want  the  crop  to  cut  in  Septem- 
ber for  winter  fodder  or  ensilage  it  is  well 
to  have  the  stalks  about  a  foot  apart  in  the  rows.     This  will 
result  in  the  greatest  total  yield  of  nutrients  in  the  stalks 
and  ears.     A  good  variety  for  this  purpose  would  be  one 
which  would  ripen  in  the  region  where  planted. 

The  third  plan  is  to  have  the  stalks  stand  three  in  a  hill 
and  hills  three  feet  apart  in  the  row,  with  rows  four  feet  apart 
or  a  little  less.  This  is  the  plan  followed  in  the  great  corn 
region  of  the  middle  West.  Usually  the  hills  are  in  rows  both 
ways  for  greater  ease  of  cultivation.    The  so-called  hill  plan 


Fig.  77.  —  Corn 
planted  at  different 
depths  to  show  time 
required  for  sprouting 
and  vigor  after  sprout- 
ing. (Agricultural  Edu» 
cation.) 


142  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

or  check-row  plan  gives  the  greatest  yields  of  ear  corn.  These 
are  not  real  hills,  as  corn  should  not  be  hilled  up.  There  are 
good  local  varieties  in  different  sections.  These  usually  prove 
better  for  the  locality  than  any  other  from  a  distance. 

Tillage. — As  soon  as  the  seed  is  planted  we  can  use  the 
smoothing  harrow  and  continue  to  use  it  after  each  heavy 
rain  as  soon  as  the  soil  loses  its  sticky  character.  Have  no 
fear  of  injuring  the  Httle  corn  plants  except  in  the  early  morn- 
ing when  the  plants  are  too  full  of  moisture,  or  in  very  stony 
fields.  If  this  system  of  harrowing  the  corn  after  it  is  up  is 
followed,  there  will  be  very  few  weeds  to  be  seen  in  the  field. 
It  is  much  faster  work  to  harrow  the  field,  taking  several  rows 
at  a  time,  than  it  is  to  use  the  cultivator,  one  row  at  a  time. 

When  the  corn  is  high  enough  so  the  cross-bars  of  the 
harrow  tend  to  break  off  the  plants,  use  a  weeder  or  a  fine- 
toothed  cultivator  a  number  of  times  to  keep  a  fine  soil- 
mulch  on  the  field.  If  the  weather  conditions  should  be  such 
as  to  keep  the  cultivator  out  of  the  field  too  long  at  a  time, 
the  ground  will  form  a  crust.  Then  it  will  be  necessary  to 
make  the  cultivator  teeth  go  deep  enough  to  break  up  and 
pulverize  the  crust.  But  when  no  crust  is  formed  always 
keep  the  shovels  or  teeth  quite  shallow  (Fig.  78). 

Harvesting  Seed  Corn. — It  pays  the  farmer  well  to  select 
his  own  seed  corn.  This  is  best  done  in  the  fall,  just  before 
frost  and  before  harvesting  the  main  crop.  Such  ears  are 
selected  as  have  the  characters  described  in  the  rules  given, 
pages  133-137.  Pick  out  the  ones  that  are  most  mature; 
they  will  be  hanging  downward.  Take  them  from  stalks 
which  bear  two  or  more  good  ears. 

Storing  Seed  Corn. — ^As  soon  as  the  ears  are  selected  and 
gathered  the  husks  should  be  entirely  removed  from  them. 
Store  the  ears  where  the  moisture  will  dry  out  well  before 
winter,  and  where  mice  will  not  attack  them.  A  good  way  is 
to  tie  the  ears  with  cord  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  not  touch 
each  other  and  suspend  each  lot  from  a  hook  in  the  ceiling 


» 


CORN 


143 


where  mice  will  not  bother  the  corn.  Corn  may  be  stored  on 
sheets  of  finely  woven  wire  netting  which  is  tacked  to  the  bare 
rafters  or  joists  of  a  dry  room,  as  a  shop  or  attic.  If  there  are 
vertical  posts  in  the  room,  headless  nails  may  be  driven  part 
way  into  the  posts;  and  then  the  large  ends  of  the  ears  are 
slipped  over  the  nails  (Fig.  79). 


Fio.  78. — Com  plants  half  grown,  showing  the  root  system.  Many  small 
fibrous  feeding  roots  are  only  a  few  inches  under  ground  between  the  rows  of  com. 
Deep  ciiltivation  is  likely  to  destroy  many  of  them. 

Harvesting  the  Main  Crop. — To  secure  the  best  retm-n 
from  the  corn  crop  the  harvesting  should  include  not  only 
the  ears  but  also  the  stalks.  This  should  be  done  as  soon  as 


144 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


the  ears  are  nearly  ripe,  after  the  kernels  are  hard.  With 
most  all  field  corn  grown  in  the  northern  states  the  growth 
continues  until  about  the  time  of  the  first  fall  frosts. 

There  are  several  plans  in  use  in  various  sections  for  the 
harvesting  of  the  corn  crop. 

1.  The  farmer  can  more  nearly  secure  the  entire  value 
of  the  corn  crop  by  cutting  the  whole  stalks  just  at  the  proper 
time  and  putting  it  in  the  silo.  The 
stalks  and  ears  are  run  through  a 
cutting  machine  (Fig.  80),  and  the 
finely  cut  forage  is  blown  or  taken  by 
a  carrier  into  a  silo.  This  is  called 
ensilage.  For  the  making  of  good 
ensilage  the  corn  crop  should  be  well 
matured,  the  kernels  glazed  and 
well-dented,  and  the  husks  partially 
dried. 

2.  In  all  dairy  sections  the  stalks 
are  usually  saved  and  fed  after  the 
ears  are  removed.  This  is  called 
stover.  First  the  whole  crop  is  cut, 
by  hand  or  by  machines,  and  put  into 
shocks.  This  should  be  done  before 
the  leaves  become  brown  and  the 
stalks  dry.'  The  shocks  are  tied  very 
tightly  near  the  top  to  avoid  weath- 
ering. Later  the  ears  are  husked  from 
the  shock,  and  the  stover  is  tied  in  large  bundles  and  stored 
under  shelter.  The  husked  ears  are  first  put  in  piles  on  the 
ground  and  then  hauled  to  the  crib. 

3.  Husking  and  shredding  machines  are  often  used  in 
some  sections.  The  corn  fodder  from  the  shocks,  after  it  is 
well  cured,  is  run  through  a  machine  which  husks  and  snaps 
off  the  ears  and  shreds  the  stalks.  This  is  one  of  the  best 
ways  to  use  the  whole  crop  after  it  is  cured. 


Fig.  79. — Corn-drying  rack. 


CORN 


145 


4.  Stripping  the  blades  of  corn  before  the  ears  are  har- 
vested is  quite  common  in  some  parts  of  the  South.  The  labor 
is  too  great  to  compensate  for  the  crop  of  forage  thus  secured. 

5.  Topping  is  a  name  given  to  the  practice,  in  some 
localities,  of  cutting  the  stalks  just  above  the  ears.  This  is 
as  much  labor  as  to  cut  and  shock  the  whole  crop. 


Fig.  80. — Silo  filling.  This  silo  is  made  from  wooden  staves  and  steel  hoops, 
a  structure  common  in  the  Eastern  States.  The  ears  and  stalks  are  cut  fine  and 
carried  up  into  the  silo  by  the  endless  chain. 


6.  In  some  sections  the  ears  are  husked  from  the  stand- 
ing stalks  late  in  fall  or  in  winter.  This  is  done  by  driving 
through  the  field  with  a  wagon  having  a  large  box,  into  which 
the  ears  of  corn  are  thrown  by  the  men  doing  the  husking. 
The  stalks  are  wasted,  but  cattle  are  sometimes  allowed  to 
"pick  over"  the  field  and  eat  the  ears  that  were  skipped.  A 
considerable  amount  of  fodder  is  also  eaten  by  the  stock. 
10 


146 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


7.  In  some  southern  sections  where  the  attacks  of  the 
grain  weevils  are  bad,  it  has  become  the  practice  to  jerk 
the  ears  and  store  them  unhusked.  The  work  required  to 
jerk  the  corn  and  afterwards  husk  it  is  greater  than  husking 
from  the  standing  stalks.  But  most  of  the  jerked  corn  is 
fed  to  stock  without  husking. 


Fig.  81. — A  prize-winning  field  of  com  in  Virginia  and  the  boy  who  grew  it.    He 
used  the  correct  methods.     (O.  B.  Martin,  Plant  Industry.) 

Storing  the  Ears. — Corn  should  be  stored  in  a  crib  with 
slatted  sides  to  allow  the  air  to  circulate  freely.  The  roof 
should  be  broad,  and  rain  proof,  to  keep  the  corn  entirely 
free  from  external  moisture.  Corn  should  be  kept  on  the  cob, 
at  least  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry,  to  prevent  heating  and 
molding.  It  is  best  to  protect  the  crib  of  corn  from  mice, 
rats,  and  sparrows.  For  this  purpose  the  floor  and  sides 
of  the  crib  are  sometimes  covered  with  galvanized  wire 
netting  of  about  one-fourth-inch  mesh. 


CORN 


147 


Storing  the  Stover. — Corn  stalks  intended  for  feed  should 
not  be  exposed  for  a  long  time  to  the  weather.  Corn  thus 
exposed  loses  much  of  its  feeding  value.  It  is  much  better 
to  put  it  under  shelter  in  barns  or  in  sheds.    The  corn  stalks 


Fig.  82. 


1)1  )>•  as  in  Fig.  81  in  his  neighbor's  field  the  same  day, 
the  cornfields.     (O.  B.  Martin,  Plant  Industry.) 


Compare 


should  be  thoroughly  dried  before  storing  for  winter.  If  the 
fall  weather  be  very  damp,  much  care  must  be  exercised 
to  prevent  the  stover  from  heating  in  the  sheds.  When  corn 
stover  has  been  shredded,  it  is  sometimes  stored  in  layers 
alternating  with  dry  straw. 


REVIEW. 

1.  Briefly  describe  the  preparation  of  doil  for  com  planting. 

2.  Give  brief  directions  for  the  planting  of  com  for  summer  green 
feed. 

3.  Give  distances  for  planting  com  to  be  used  as  winter  forage  or 
ensilage. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "hill"  com  ?    What  is  its  chief  use? 

5.  Name  four  types  of  corn  grown  in  America. 

6.  Describe  flint  com. 

7.  Describe  dent  com. 

8.  Tell  when  to  select  com  for  seed 


148  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

9.  Describe  the  best  shape  of  ears  of  field  com. 

10.  What  things  indicate  purity  of  corn  ? 

11.  Give  the  points  which  indicate  vitaUty,  besides  the  test. 

12.  Describe  good  tips  and  butts  of  ears  of  com. 

13.  Why  should  the  keraiels  be  uniform  in  shape  ? 

14.  Describe  the  best  shape  and  give  the  reasons. 

15.  Why  should  ears  of  com  for  seed  be  uniform  in  length  and  cir- 
cumference ? 

16.  Why  do  we  object  to  deep  furrows  between  rows  and  open 
spaces  between  the  tips  of  the  kernels  at  the  cob  ? 

17.  Name  five  things  which  aid  in  determining  the  proportion  of 
corn  to  cob. 

18.  Give  two  things  to  be  considered  when  storing  seed  corn. 

19.  Give  three  good  ways  of  storing  seed  corn. 

20.  Give  a  good  reason  for  the  individual  ear  method  of  testing  com. 

21.  Describe  a  seed  testing  cloth  and  box  for  that  purpose. 

22.  How  would  you  keep  the  ears  from  being  mixed  during  the 
testing  time  ? 

23.  Tell  how  to  select  the  kernels  that  are  to  be  put  into  the  tester. 

24.  What  use  may  be  made  of  the  ears  which  do  not  show  perfect 
germination  ? 

25.  Mention  several  methods  of  harvesting  the  main  crop  of  corn. 

References. — United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins  relating  to  corn: 
229,  The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn;  272,  A  Successful  Hog  and 
Seed-com  Farm;  292,  Cost  of  FiUing  Silos;  298,  Food  Value  of  Corn 
and  Corn  Products;  303,  Corn  Harvesting  Machinery;  313,  Harvesting 
and  Storing  Corn;  325,  Small  Farms  in  the  Corn  Belt;  385,  Boys'  and 
Girls'  Agricultural  Clubs;  400,  A  More  Profitable  Corn-planting  Method; 
409,  School  Lessons  on  Corn;  414,  Corn  Cultivation;  415,  Seed  Com. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
SMALL  GRAINS. 


Wheat. — ^Wheat  is  probably  the  oldest  grain  used  by 
man.  It  is  more  extensively  grown  and  used  than  any  other 
human  food  except  perhaps  rice.  When  flour  is  made  from 
it  the  by-products  are  now  extensively  used  to  feed  animals. 
In  America  the  newer  lands  in  some  portions  of  the  West 
produce  the  largest  crops  of  wheat,  but  the  grain  is  grown 
somewhat  in  all  sections. 

Types  of  Wheat. — As  a  general  rule,  the  drier  regions  of 
the  middle  West  produce  hard  winter  wheat  or  hard  spring 
wheat,  best  for  flour;  the  humid  climates  produce  soft  wheats. 


SMALL  GRAINS 


149 


Varieties  are  also  classified  by  the  heads,  as  bearded  and 
beardless  or  smooth  (Fig.  83).  As  to  color  of  grain  they  may 
be  (1)  white  or  yellowish,  and  (2)  red  varieties. 

Soil. — The  heavy  clay  loams  are  best  for  wheat  growing 
but  medium  loams  are  also  used.  Heavy  soils  are  cool  and 
hold  their  moisture  better  than  lighter  soils.  The  kernels 
will  not  develop  fully,  or  ''fill,"  if  the  soil  is  too  light. 


Fig.  83. — Three  types  of  wheat  mounted  under  glass  on  cotton.      Bearded  wheat 
on  the  right ;  the  others  are  smooth ;  square-head  wheat  on  left. 

Preparation  and  Planting. — The  soil  is  usually  plowed  in 
the  early  fall,  whether  it  be  for  winter  or  for  spring  wheat. 
It  is  important  that  the  bottom  soil  be  well  packed  down 
before  the  grain  is  sown.  For  fall  seeding  the  ground  may  be 
rolled  and  then  harrowed  again  to  secure  the  desired  con- 
dition of  seed  bed. 


150  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

The  time  to  plant  varies  considerably  in  different  sec- 
tions. In  Canada  and  the  northern  tier  of  States  the  spring 
wheats  are  usually  used  and  are  sown  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  soil  can  be  prepared.  Winter  wheat  is  more  common 
in  the  other  States  and  is  sown  early  enough  in  the  fall  to 
let  the  young  plants  make  a  good  growth  before  winter. 

A  grain  drill  is  usually  used  for  the  sowing  of  wheat.  This 
gives  a  better  stand  than  broadcasting  or  sowing  by  hand, 
as  the  seed  is  evenly  distributed  and  well  covered.  The 
amount  of  seed  per  acre  varies — according  to  soil,  quahty 
of  seed  and  manner  of  seeding — from  one  and  a  half  to  three 
bushels. 

Heavy  seed  wheat  should  always  be  selected  for  seeding. 
The  plump,  full  kernels  will  give  much  better  results  than 
slender  shrunken  seed  (Fig.  9).  The  legal  weight  in  all  States 
is  sixty  pounds  per  bushel.  That  used  for  seed  should  weigh 
this  much  or  more  if  possible. 

Harvesting. — Wheat  is  ripe  when  the  kernels  have  passed 
the  dough  or  soft  stage.  The  kernels  should  be  examined 
before  the  cutting  is  made.  Cut  before  there  is  danger  of 
the  grain  shattering  out  of  the  head. 

Much  progress  has  been  made  in  the  improvement  of 
machines  used  for  harvesting  grain.  The  cutting  and  binding 
into  bundles  is  done  with  a  self-binder  (Fig.  84) .  Then  the 
grain  is  put  into  small  shocks  of  about  a  dozen  bundles. 
Here  it  remains  in  the  field  for  a  week  or  two  to  '^cure." 
It  is  then  ready  to  thresh  or  to  put  in  stacks. 

In  the  driest  regions  of  the  West  the  grain  is  headed  and 
threshed  immediately.  Heading  is  cutting  the  stems  just 
below  the  grain  heads  with  special  machines  made  for  that 
method  of  harvesting. 

Oats. — Oats  grow  farther  north  than  corn  or  wheat. 
They  like  a  cool  moist  climate,  and  have  been  grown  in  the 
cooler  parts  of  the  Old  World  for  centuries.  They  are  now 
produced  in  Canada  and  most  of  the  States  of  the  Union. 


SMALL  GRAINS  151 

Oats  make  one  of  the  best  feeds  for  horses,  and  when  ground 
are  used  for  other  farm  stock.  Oatmeal  in  the  form  of  rolled 
oats  forms  a  good  human  food.  Oat  straw  is  better  for  stock 
than  the  straw  of  other  cereals. 

Soil. — Oats  will  grow  on  soils  that  are  rather  too  poor 
for  wheat,  but  they  thrive  best  on  the  richer  soils.  Heavier 
crops  of  grain  are  produced  if  the  soil  is  heavy.  The  crop 
responds  well  to  good  applications  of  fertilizer,  if  too  much 
nitrogen  is  not  used.  Too  much  nitrogen  in  the  soil  produces 
tall  growth  and  little  grain. 


Fig.  84.— a  modem  grain  harvester.  All  small  grains  are  cut  and  bound  into 
bundles  by  this  machine.  Ihe  tying  part  of  the  machine  is  one  of  the  greatest 
inventions  of  modern  times. 


Preparation. — Good  plowing  and  harrowing  are  advisable 
before  the  crop  is  sown.  The  lower  soil  of  the  seed  bed 
should  be  well  packed  down  if  the  plowing  is  done  only  a 
short  time  before  seeding.  In  some  sections  the  soil  is  merely 
stirred  with  a  disc  harrow  instead  of  plowing.  This  custom 
prevails  in  the  middle  West,  when  oats  are  sown  the  next 
year  after  corn.  A  more  thorough  preparation  if  the  soil 
is  heavy  usually  gives  larger  yields. 

Seeding  is  done  in  very  early  spring  throughout  the 
Northern  States  and  Canada.  In  the  South  oats  are  started 
in  the  fall.    The  seeding  may  be  either  broadcast  or  with  grain 


152  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

drills.  Two  or  three  bushels  of  seed  are  used  per  acre, 
according  to  fertility  and  method  of  seeding.  Very  heavy 
seed  should  be  selected.  Thirty-two  pounds  is  the  legal 
weight  of  a  bushel  of  oats  in  all  States  except  Virginia,  New 
Jersey,  Idaho,  and  Maryland.  The  grain  selected  for  seed 
should  be  as  heavy  as  thirty-eight  or  forty  pounds  per 
bushel. 

Harvesting. — There  is  a  little  less  danger  of  the  oats 
shattering  from  the  heads  when  cut  than  there  is  with  wheat; 
but  in  general  the  same  condition  of  maturity  should  be 
secured.  The  grain  is  cut  and  bound  with  self-binders  and 
then  placed  in  shocks,  where  it  is  left  for  several  weeks  to 
thoroughly  dry  out  before  threshing. 

Barley. — There  are  several  types  or  varieties  of  barley 
grown  in  America,  which  may  be  grouped  as  two-row,  four- 
row,  and  six-row;  the  numbers  referring  to  the  rows  of  grain 
on  the  heads.  The  two-row  barley  is  more  common  in  Europe 
and  the  six-row  more  conmion  in  America.  Most  all  varieties 
have  hulls  on  the  grain,  but  hulless  varieties  are  sometimes 
grown. 

Barley  adapts  itself  to  a  wide  range  of  climate,  as  the 
time  required  for  maturing  a  crop  is  very  short.  It  is  found 
wherever  any  of  the  other  cereals  are  grown. 

Soil  and  Its  Preparation. — Barley  thrives  best  on  well- 
drained,  rich,  sandy  loam.  The  soil  is  prepared  as  for  oats 
and  the  times  for  seeding  in  different  sections  is  about  the 
same. 

Rye. — Rye  is  less  used  for  bread  making  than  wheat  in 
America,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  Old  World  the  reverse 
is  the  case.  The  flour  there  is  cheaper,  as  it  is  much  darker 
than  wheat  flour.  Rye  grows  somewhat  taller  than  wheat 
and  thus  produces  more  straw.  The  straw  has  a  commercial 
value  for  packing  purposes. 

Culture. — Rye  will  grow  in  any  region  adapted  to  wheat 
raising,  and  is  grown  even  farther  north  than  wheat.    It  does 


SMALL  GRAINS 


153 


fairly  well  on  poor  soils  but  the  rich  loams  are  better  for  the 
crop.  When  the  crop  is  wanted  for  grain  and  for  straw  the 
methods  of  culture  are  practically  the  same  as  for  wheat. 

Rye  is  often  sown  in  summer  to  serve  as  a  winter  cover 
crop,  and  the  green  growth  is  plowed  under  in  spring  to  serve 
as  green  manure  in  the  improvement  of  soils. 


Fig.  85. — A  good  way  to  tie  up  small  grains  and  grasses  for  exhibits.     No.  2  had 
no  fertilizer,  No.  3  had  poorly  kept  manure,  4  fresh  manure,  8  nitrate  of  soda. 


Exercise. — Samples  of  Grains. — Let  pupils  bring  from 
their  homes  or  from  their  stores  small  samples  of  wheat,  rye, 
oats  and  barley.  There  may  be  poor  and  good  samples  in 
the  collection.  These  may  be  placed  in  bottles  wdth  suitable 
labels.  Extra  fine  samples  may  be  secured  by  the  teacher 
for  a  school  collection  at  local  fairs  or  other  expositions. 

Exercise. — Heads  of  Grains. — Make  a  collection  for 
the  school  of  all  the  forms  of  heads  of  the  different  kinds 
of  grain  that  are  grown  near  by.    Preserve  these  in  a  bed  of 


154  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

cotton  in  shallow  pasteboard  boxes  with  glass  over  them, 
secured  by  binding  strips  (Fig.  83).  A  method  of  preparing 
samples  for  school  fairs  is  shown  in  Fig.  85. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  different  types  of  wheat. 
'     2.  Tell  of  the  preparation  of  the  soil  and  times  for  drilling  in  wheat. 

3.  What  is  the  legal  weight  of  wheat  ?   Why  should  seed  wheat  be 
heavier,  if  possible  ? 

4.  Describe  the  appearance  of  good  seed  wheat. 

5.  What  is  a  self-binder  ?   What  is  a  header  ?  What  is  a  thresher  ? 

6.  What  are  the  chief  uses  for  oats  ? 

7.  Give  directions  for  the  seeding  of  oats. 

8.  Name  three  types  of  barley.   Which  is  most  grown  in  America  ? 

9.  Where  may  rye  be  grown  ? 

10.  How  does  rye  flour  differ  from  wheat  flour  ? 

11.  What  soils  are  suited  to  the  growing  of  rye  ? 
'     12.  Describe  the  use  of  rye  as  a  green  manure. 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers' Bulletins:  395,  Sixty  Day  and  Kherson 
Oats;  399,  Irrigation  of  Grain;  420,  Oats:  Distribution  and  Uses;  424, 
Oats:  Growing  the  Crop;  427  and  443,  Barley. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
POTATOES. 


Irish  Potatoes. — This  is  a  very  common  crop  on  the  farms 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Many  millions  of 
bushels  are  produced  and  used  chiefly  as  human  food. 

Origin  and  Type. — The  potato  is  a  native  of  America. 
The  first  colonists  found  the  Indians  growing  it.  In  many 
places  it  is  called  the  white  potato  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
yellow  sweet  potato.  It  is  widely  known  as  the  Irish  potato 
because  of  its  general  use  in  Ireland.  There  are  now  a  great 
many  varieties,  and  new  names  are  annually  appearing  in 
the  seed  catalogues.  These  are  chiefly  of  two  types,  viz., 
early  potatoes  and  late  potatoes.  These  differ  only  in  the 
time  required  to  mature  the  crop  from  the  time  of  planting. 
Early  varieties  are  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be 


POTATOES  155 

worked  in  spring  and  are  harvested  as  soon  as  possible  for 
early  market.  Late  varieties  are  planted  late  in  May  or 
early  in  June  and  are  left  in  the  ground  to  full  maturity  and 
are  then  sold  or  stored  for  winter. 

Soil. — The  best  soil  for  the  potato  is  a  rich,  sandy  loam, 
well  drained  and  well  supplied  with  vegetable  matter.  A 
soil  heavier  than  this  may  be  used  if  it  is  improved  by  green 
manuring  and  drainage.  The  lighter  soils  should  be  greatly 
enriched  by  the  addition  of  green  manures  and  fertihzers. 
Potatoes  should  be  alternated  or  rotated  with  other  crops 
on  the  field,  not  continuously  grown  on  the  same  land. 

Barnyard  manure  for  potato  fields  should  be  well  rotted 
or  may  be  applied  to  the  soil  for  the  preceding  crop,  such  as 
corn.  Commercial  fertilizers  are  commonly  applied  at  the 
time  the  potatoes  are  planted. 

Green  Manure. — A  green  manure  to  plow  under  in  the 
early  spring  may  be  started  in  the  field  of  corn  or  other  crop 
the  preceding  summer.  Sow  the  seed  in  July  or  early  August, 
using  a  mixture  of  rye,  winter  vetch  and  crimson  clover. 
These  plants  will  serve  as  a  winter  cover  crop  and  when 
plowed  under  will  quickly  decay  and  form  humus. 

Plowing  should  be  done  in  the  spring  not  long  before  the 
potatoes  are  to  be  planted.  It  must  be  deep  and  thorough 
as  the  potatoes  require  a  loose  bed  for  growth.  The  newlj^- 
plowed  ground  must  not  be  packed  with  a  roller,  but  should 
be  smoothed  with  a  common  harrow. 

Cutting  Seed. — The  seed  pieces  are  cut  in  many  different 
ways,  with  one  or  two  eyes  to  a  piece  being  the  most  common. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  in  cutting  the  tubers  quarters 
will  give  larger  crop  yields.  Before  cutting  the  tubers 
should  be  soaked  for  two  hours  in  a  solution  of  one  pint  of 
full  strength  formalin  in  thirty-two  gallons  of  water;  this 
is  to  prevent  the  scab  disease  from  getting  into  the  soil. 

Planting. — Early  potatoes  may  be  planted  as  early  in 
the  spring  as  the  soil  can  be  prepared.    Late  potatoes  should 


156  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

be  planted  in  May  or  early  June.  The  crop  suffers  when  dry 
weather  comes  on.  The  time  of  planting  should  be  planned 
to  bring  the  time  when  the  tubers  are  forming  at  a  period 
when  the  rainfall  is  usually  good. 

There  are  several  good  methods  of  planting  potatoes; 
these  vary  according  to  climate  and  soil.  In  wet  or  heavy 
soil  they  may  be  planted  only  three  inches  deep;  in  the 
lighter  soils  or  when  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry  the  tubers 
may  be  planted  as  deep  as  six  inches. 


Fig.  86. — Digging  potatoes  by  use  of  a  machine  and  four  horses.    Men,  women  and 
children  sometimes  pick  up  the  potatoes  after  the  machine. 


Distances  for .  Planting  Potatoes  vary  somewhat  in  dif- 
ferent potato  districts.  Very  commonly  the  rows  are  three 
feet  apart  and  the  seed-pieces  are  twelve  or  eighteen  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  Ten  bushels  of  seed  potatoes  are  required 
to  plant  an  acre,  at  distances  one  and  a  half  by  three  feet,  if 
the  pieces  weigh  one  ounce  each. 

Cultivation. — After  the  planting  is  done  the  field  should 
be  harrowed.  After  this  frequent  shallow  cultivations  are 
made  until  the  vines  are  so  large  that  they  shade  the  soil 
well.  A  light  ridging  of  the  soil  towards  the  rows  at  the  time 
of  the  last  cultivation  is  usually  practiced,  the  purpose  being 
to  prevent  the  new  tubers  from  growing  out  of  the  ground. 


POTATOES 


157 


Harvesting. — Large  potato  fields  are  usually  dug  by  use 
of  machines  drawn  by  horses  (Fig.  86).  One  of  the  smaller 
forms  is  shown  in  Fig.  87.  Larger  machines  elevate  the 
tubers,  shake  off  the  dirt,  and  drop  them  on  the  ground. 
They  are  drawn  by  three  or  four  horses.  Small  garden 
patches  are  dug  by  hand  tools. 

Weights  and  Yields. — The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of 
potatoes  is  sixty  pounds,  except  in  Pennsylvania  and  Vir- 
ginia, where  the  weight  is  fifty-six  pounds.  The  yields  are 
often  two  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  or  more  per  acre,  but 


Fig.  87. — An  inexpensive  pKjtato  digger  to  be  drawn  by  one  or  two  hoTSes. 
(Plant  Industry.) 

the  average  is  about  one  hundred  bushels  per  acre.  The 
value  of  the  crop  in  the  United  States  each  year  is  about 
$100,000,000. 

Sweet  Potatoes. — The  sweet  potato  is  grown  to  a  limited 
extent  in  nearly  all  the  Northern  States,  but  the  best  quah- 
ties  and  largest  quantities  are  produced  in  the  Southern 
States.    The  plant  is  of  tropical  origin. 

Soil. — Sweet  potatoes  thrive  best  on  a  rather  sandy 
loam  which  does  not  contain  too  much  of  organic  matter. 
Soils  that  are  too  poor  for  the  production  of  most  other 
farm  crops  may  suit  sweet  potatoes  very  well. 

Starting  the  Plants. — New  plants  are  started  in  early 


158 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


spring  from  seed  potatoes.  The  whole  potatoes  are  planted 
in  fine,  rich  sandy  loam  in  hot-beds  (Figs.  88,  89).  These 
may  be  heated  either  by  manure  or  by  fuel.  The  tempera- 
ture at  first  is  kept  at  80°  or  85°  F.  Before  the  plants  are 
pulled  from  this  bed  to  be  transplanted  to  the  field  the 
temperature  is  gradually  lowered  to  60°  F.  The  growth  in 
the  hot-bed  requires  about  six  weeks. 


Fia.  88. — Sweet  potatoes  in  a  hot-bed  ready  to  be  covered.     They  will  produce 
young  plants  for  field  planting.     (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 

In  the  Field. — The  soil  is  prepared  as  for  com — ^the  sur- 
face being  left  smooth  and  even.  In  some  places  the  farmers 
ridge  the  field  and  set  the  plants  on  the  ridges.  Others 
practice  the  level  culture.  Planting  in  the  field  should  be 
done  when  the  soil  is  moist  enough  to  produce  a  rapid  growth 
after  setting  the  young  plants.  Where  level  culture  is  prac- 
ticed the  plants  are  often  set  two  or  two  and  one-half  feet 
each  way.  Where  ridges  are  made  the  rows  are  often  three 
and  one-half  feet  apart  and  the  plants  fourteen  to  eighteen 


POTATOES 


159 


inches  apart  in  the  rows,  requiring  over  8000  plants  per 
acre.  The  plants  are  set  in  the  ground  by  hand,  by  tongs, 
or  by  large  machine  planters. 

Cultivation  is  simple  and  does  not  last  long  as  the  vines 
soon  cover  the  ground.  Large  weeds  are  usually  pulled  by 
hand  or  cut  with  hoes. 

Harvesting  is  done  before  cold  weather.  The  vines  must 
be  cut  loose  from  the  hills  before  they  are  frozen  to  prevent 
injury  of  the  crop.  There  are  special  plows,  similar  to  Fig. 
87,  for  digging  sweet  potatoes.  Small  areas  are  often  dug 
with  spading  forks. 


Fio,  89. — A  single  sweet  potato  from  the  hot-bed,  showing  many  young  sprouts. 
Note  the  difference  in  the  size  of  young  plants.     (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


Storage  is  necessary  if  the  crop  is  not  sold  immediately. 
Special  pits  and  heated  buildings  are  constructed  for  storing 
sweet  potatoes.  The  roots  must  be  handled  with  the  greatest 
care  to  avoid  bruising  them  if  they  are  to  be  stored.  When 
first  put  into  storage  they  go  through  a  "sweating"  or  curing 
process;  this  requires  a  temperatiu-e  of  85°  or  90°  F.  After 
that  the  temperature  is  kept  at  55°  to  65°  F.  A  great  deal  of 
ventilation  is  required  to  keep  the  place  perfectly  dry. 


160  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


REVIEW. 

1.  Where  was  the  Irish  potato  first  found  ? 

2.  What  kinds  of  soils  are  best  suited  to  potato  growing  ? 

3.  Describe  the  growing  of  a  green  manure  crop  for  a  potato  field. 

4.  Give  directions  for  plowing  for  potatoes. 

5.  Tell  of  the  times  for  planting  early  and  late  potatoes. 

6.  Give  depths  for  planting;  also  distances  for  planting. 

7.  Give  directions  for  treating  potato  seed  to  keep  scab  disease 
out  of  the  soil. 

8.  What  IS  the  legal  weight  for  a  bushel  of  potatoes  in  your  State  ? 

9.  What  is  the  usual  yield  in  bushels  per  acre  ? 

10.  In  what  climates  and  on  what  soils  are  sweet  potatoes  chiefly 
grown? 

11.  Describe  the  starting  of  sweet  potato  plants  for  a  large  field. 

12.  Give  directions  for  setting  them  in  the  field. 

13.  Tell  how  sweet  potatoes  are  stored  for  winter. 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  35,  Potato  Culture;  91, 
Potato  Diseases;  324,  Sweet  Potatoes;  365,  Farm  Management  in 
Northern  Potato-growing  Sections;  386,  Potato  Culture  on  Irrigated 
Farms;  407,  The  Potato  as  a  Truck  Crop;  342,  Potato  Breeding,  pp.  10-14. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FORESTRY. 

Forest  products  in  America  are  not  as  generally  con- 
sidered a  part  of  the  permanent  resources  of  the  farm  as 
they  should  be.  The  chief  products  are  lumber,  posts,  poles, 
railroad  ties,  and  fuel.  Thus  far  lumber,  ties,  and  poles  have 
been  obtained  mainly  from  native  forests.  These  are  rapidly 
becoming  exhausted.  In  the  prairie  States  firewood  and 
posts  are  obtained  from  plantings  made  by  man,  but  else- 
where chiefly  from  the  native  woods. 

Forestry  should  become  a  systematic  part  of  many  farms 
in  all  the  prairie  States  as  well  as  in  the  States  where  tim- 
ber was  originally  found. 

Tree  planting  is  naturally  considered  under  two  heads: 
(1)  Prairie  planting  may  be  for  ornament,  windbreaks, 
shelter-belts,  and  wood-lots  or  groves  for  wood,  posts  and 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FORESTRY  161 

lumber.  (2)  Forest  planting,  which  is  primarily  for  the 
revenue  to  be  derived  from  the  sale  of  wood  and  lumber. 

It  is  a  special  problem  in  the  management  of  each  indi- 
vidual farm  to  decide  just  what  planting  should  be  done. 
The  Forestry  Service  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  offers  to  give  practical  assistance  to  tree  planters 
in  deciding  these  questions.  Circular  22  of  that  service 
should  be  read  in  this  connection.  Careful  study  should  be 
given  to  the  planting  of  trees  under  some  good  system,  as 
a  forest  is  the  most  permanent  thing  that  can  be  planted 
on  a  farm. 

Need  of  Forest  Planting. — Forests  are  necessary  to  the 
highest  material  development  of  any  country.  The  climatic 
influences  are  very  beneficial.  It  is  desirable  in  behalf  of 
the  public  welfare  to  plant  trees  in  great  number.  This  is 
true  both  on  the  treeless  plains  and  also  on  the  sites  of  de- 
stroyed forests.  To  be  of  most  public  benefit  the  planting 
should  be  well  distributed  over  the  region.  All  will  share 
the  benefits  and  all  should  join  in  planting  the  trees. 

Forest  Influences. — Growing  trees  conserve  moisture, 
modify  climatic  extremes,  and  purify  the  air.  Careful 
observation  shows  that  large  trees  growing  in  a  grove  affect 
climatic  and  soil  conditions  in  several  ways: 

1.  During  the  day  the  ground  under  the  trees  is  protected 
from  the  sun's  rays  and  is  therefore  cooler  than  soil  not 
protected.  The  air  circulating  over  this  cool  soil  tends  to 
cool  the  air  in  the  immediate  vicinity  on  sunny  days. 

2.  At  night  the  trees  retard  the  loss  of  heat  from  the 
ground  under  them.  This  tends  to  equaUze  the  temperature 
of  not  only  the  soil  and  air  under  the  tree  but  that  in  the 
near  vicinity.  The  soil  and  air  are  kept  cooler  by  day  and 
warmer  by  night.  This  equalizing  of  temperature  is  notice- 
able during  short  periods  of  very  hot  or  very  cold  weather. 
Gardens  growing  near  trees  are  sometimes  uninjured  by 
fall  frosts  which  kill  tender  plants  in  other  gardens. 

11 


I6i2  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

3.  The  drying  out  of  soil  is  also  prevented  by  the  mulch 
of  leaves  and  twigs  which  fall  to  the  ground  under  the  trees. 
Trees  and  leaves  check  the  flow  of  water  over  the  land,  thus 
preventing  the  washing  away  of  good  soil.  The  soil  is  not  so 
badly  beaten  down  by  heavy  rains.  The  water  soaks  into 
the  soil  better  and  the  flow-off  is  very  gradual. 

4.  By  breaking  the  force  of  the  wind  trees  will  aid  in 
retaining  moisture  in  the  surface  soil  near  the  trees.  The 
evaporation  decreases  as  the  wind  is  checked.  Water  is  also 
held  better  in  the  soil  shaded  by  the  trees.  A  large  amount 
of  water  which  the  trees  give  off  from  their  leaves  is  drawn 
from  the  subsoil,  without  drawing  on  the  water  of  the  surface 
soil.  This  moisture  from  the  leaves  increases  the  amount 
in  the  surrounding  air.  Trees  which  have  the  roots  near 
the  surface,  as  the  elm  and  red  maple,  take  up  so  much  water 
near  the  surface  as  to  make  it  unwise  to  try  to  grow  crops 
near  them. 

5.  The  destructive  force  of  severe  winds  is  often  prevented 
by  trees.  Tornadoes  may  be  prevented  or  made  of  little 
effect  by  large  groups  of  trees.  Certain  crops  may  be  grown 
when  protected  by  shelter-belts  of  trees  that  could  not  other- 
wise be  grown  on  the  prairie.  These  shelters  from  high  winds 
prevent  the  blowing  of  soils.  They  lessen  the  severity  of 
cold  winter  winds  both  for  stock  and  for  people. 

How  Trees  Influence  Water  Supply. — The  proper  dis- 
tribution of  water  upon  the  land  is  the  most  important  factor 
in  the  growing  of  crops.  In  the  natural  course  of  the  seasons 
we  have  both  floods  and  droughts.  The  proper  holding  of 
the  water  from  flood-time  to  drought  is  best  accomplished 
by  the  growth  of  trees  and  the  protection  of  natural  forests, 

Rain  falling  upon  forested  areas  flows  away  slowly. 
Springs  and  streams  are  kept  constantly  supplied  from  the 
water  of  such  areas. 

Instead  of  the  waters  of  the  rainy  season  producing  heavy 
floods  and  causing  much  destruction  along  the  courses  of 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FORESTRY  163 

streams  the  water  is  greatly  retarded  and  no  flood  is  expe- 
rienced. The  water  from  heavy  rains  is  held  back  by  the 
carpet  of  leaves  on  the  soil  beneath  the  trees,  by  the  roots 
in  the  soil,  and  by  the  decaying  matter  from  former  years. 

In  sections  where  the  forests  have  been  cut  off  for  the 
use  of  man,  the  streams  frequently  go  dry  during  the  summer. 
Water  power  of  mills  and  factories  is  thus  cut  off;  the  water 
supply  for  homes,  villages,  and  cities  is  reduced  to  the  danger 
point.  Navigation  of  the  larger  streams  is  checked  or  stopped 
for  a  while.  Many  wells  are  without  drinking  water  because 
the  level  of  the  soil  water  is  deeper  than  the  wells. 

The  growth  of  forests  would  correct  the  difficulty  of  water 
supply  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  The  United  States 
Government  has  reserved  large  areas  of  mountainous  and 
hilly  land  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  natural  forests  and 
maintaining  the  flow  of  the  larger  streams  in  those  sections. 

Forest  Planting  on  the  Farm. — The  wood-lot  or  forest 
plantation  on  a  farm  where  the  land  is  all  tillable  should 
usually  be  in  the  form  of  a  wide  shelter-belt.  If  there  be 
rough  land  on  the  farm  not  suitable  for  the  more  common 
crops,  groves  may  be  maintained  on  this  to  good  advantage. 
On  land  too  stony  or  too  steep  for  use  of  other  crops  some 
kinds  of  trees  will  grow  well.  The  location  of  such  groves  is 
to  be  determined  by  natural  conditions. 

The  location  of  the  wide  shelter-belts  will  be  influenced 
by  several  things.  These  trees  may  affect  the  air  drainage 
of  near-by  orchards;  the  wind  currents  will  be  controlled; 
and  the  humidity  of  the  air  about  the  home  will  be  influenced. 

Such  trees  should  be  far  enough  from  the  buildings  and 
roadways  to  not  cause  the  drifting  of  snows  which  would  be 
in  the  way.  The  shelter-belt  should  be  about  six  rods  wade, 
made  up  of  a  number  of  lines  or  rows  of  trees  with  the  smaller 
kinds  on  the  side  toward  the  prevaihng  wind.  This  will 
deflect  the  wind  currents  upward  and  prevent  their  bad 
effects. 


164  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Make  the  belts  of  trees  several  rods  wide,  because  single 
rows  of  trees  or  narrow  belts  are  less  profitable  when  we 
consider  the  relative  amount  of  land  used. 

Shelter-belts  should  be  planted  on  the  side  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds.  In  some  places  this  is  on  the  southwest  side 
of  the  group  of  farm  buildings  to  protect  the  premises  from 
hottest  winds  of  summer.  The  coldest  winds  of  winter  will 
be  checked  by  planting  trees  along  the  north  and  northwest. 
Probably  the  planting  of  belts  along  the  north  and  west 
sides  would  be  best  in  most  cases. 

In  prairie  countries  and  in  dry  climates  the  shelter-belts 
should  be  used  to  protect  fields  of  crops  from  both  the  blast- 
ing winds  of  summer  and  the  storms  of  winter. 

Kinds  of  Trees. — There  has  always  been  a  tendency  in 
the  prairie  States  to  plant  trees  that  would  grow  quickly. 
These  are  not  the  best  kinds  because,  as  a  rule,  they  are 
short-lived  and  the  plantation  is  soon  gone.  The  more 
permanent  kinds  of  trees  should  be  chosen. 

The  revenue  to  be  derived  from  the  sale  of  fuel,  posts, 
poles,  and  lumber  should  be  considered  in  the  choice  of 
varieties.  Chestnut  groves  have  often  paid  a  good  return 
for  their  cost  in  the  nuts  produced  for  market.  Walnut  is 
a  slower  growing  wood  than  cottonwood,  but  when  mature 
will  return  a  much  larger  income  for  each  year  of  its  growth. 
Trees  with  deep  root  systems  should  be  chosen  if  the  trees 
are  to  grow  near  other  crops,  as  the  surface  soil  will  not  be 
dried  out  so  fast.  Such  trees  would  be  walnut,  hickory, 
hardy  catalpa,  chestnut,  locust,  and  others.  All  of  these 
have  valuable  woods. 

Propagation  of  Forest  Trees. — Nearly  all  kinds  of  forest 
trees  are  propagated  by  seeds.  Willows  and  a  few  others 
are  easily  increased  by  cuttings. 

The  seeds  for  planting  should  be  mature  and  as  freshly 
gathered  as  possible.  It  is  quite  diflBicult  to  germinate  some 
tree  seeds  that  are  very  old  and  dry.     •     - 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FORESTRY 


165 


The  nuts  of  black  walnut,  hickory,  chestnut,  and  others, 
and  the  pits  of  the  plum,  peach,  and  cherry  should  be  either 
spread  between  layers  of  moist  sand  or  planted  in  the  fall 
where  they  are  to  grow.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry 
out  after  ripening.  The  larger  nuts  may  be  planted  while 
doing  shallow  plowing,  by  dropping  them  in  a  furrow  and 
covering  them  with  the  next  furrow  slice. 

The  deep  root  system  formed  by  most  of  the  true  nut- 
bearing  trees  makes  them  difficult  to  transplant,  even  when 
young. 


Fig.  90. — Lattice  supported  on  poles.    Such  a  structure  gives  alternate  light  and 
shade  in  growing  forest  seedlings,  tobacco,  ginseng,  and  a  " 


(Plant  Industry.) 


few  other  plants. 


Seeds  that  ripen  in  spring  and  early  summer  should  be 
planted  within  a  few  weeks,  as  they  live  but  a  short  time. 
The  American  elm,  soft  maple,  and  cottonwood  are  examples 
of  this  group,  but  the  red  elm  is  an  exception,  as  the  seeds 
will  not  sprout  until  the  next  spring. 

Seeds  of  trees  that  ripen  in  the  fall,  except  the  evergreens, 
may  be  planted  either  the  same  fall  or  the  following  spring. 
If  planted  in  the  fall  they  should  be  covered  with  a  leaf 
mulch  and  also  protected  from  squirrels  and  other  animals. 

The  cone-bearing  trees,  including  the  pine,  spruce,  tama- 
rack, and  white  cedar  are  started  from  seed  sown  in  the 


166 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


spring  under  partial  shade.  This  partial  shade  may  be  made 
by  a  lattice  work  supported  on  poles  (Fig.  90) .  Rather  sandy 
soil  is  best  for  the  starting  of  these  seeds,  which  are  planted 
very  shallow.  They  may  be  sown  either  broadcast  or  thickly 
in  drills  with  the  rows  close  together. 

Before  young  trees  of  any  of  the  kinds  become  too  crowded 
in  the  seed  beds  they  should  be  transplanted.  If  they  are 
too  small  to  be  used  in  the  forest  plantation  they  are  put  in 
rows  far  enough  apart  to  cultivate  in  a 
forest  nursery.  It  is  a  very  common 
practice  to  keep  young  trees  in  the  forest 
nursery  for  one  or  more  years. 

Exercise. — Starting  Tree  Seeds. — Col- 
lect from  the  woods,  or  buy  from  a  seed 
store,  seeds  of  ash,  birch,  hard  maple,  and 
box  elder.  Plant  them  in  a  window  box 
in  loose  black  soil,  covering  them  to  a 
depth  of  about  one  inch.  Moisten  the 
soil  from  time  to  time  and  observe  the 
time  required  for  germination  of  each 
kind.  Note  the  methods  they  have  of 
coming  out  of  the  soil.  How  many  seed- 
leaves  have  they  ?  (Fig.  91.) 
Distances  Apart  for  Trees. — The  Forest  Service  recom- 
mends that  in  a  wood-lot  or  forest  plantation  most  trees  be 
set  four  feet  apart  each  way.  It  is  the  aim  to  get  the  soil 
shaded  by  the  trees  as  soon  as  possible,  and  to  use  all  the 
space  for  tree  growth  after  the  first  year.  The  first  year 
a  low-growing  crop  requiring  cultivation  may  be  planted  in 
the  rows  with  the  young  trees.  Potatoes  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose  one  season  only. 

Another  plan  followed  in  some  forest  planting  is  to  plant 
the  trees  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows  with  eight  feet  between 
the  rows.  In  this  plan  the  space  between  rows  may  be  used 
for  other  cultivated  crops  for  several  years.    The  trees  can 


Fig.  91.  —  Young 
maple-tree  seedling 
showing  the  first  seed- 
leaves  still  clinging. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FORESTRY 


167 


be  cultivated  for  a  much  longer  period  than  where  they  are 
only  four  feet  apart. 

Mixed  plantings  are  made  by  setting  alternate  rows  of 
two  or  three  varieties.  There  are  a  number  of  advantages 
derived  from  the  mixing  of  the  trees  instead  of  planting  only 
one  kind  (Fig.  92) : 


Fig.  92. — A  shelter-belt  of  mixed  hard  woods.    This  form  of  fence  will  protect  the 
forest  from  grazing  stock.    (Plant  Industry.) 


1.  There  is  less  danger  of  total  loss  from  drought,  insects, 
and  diseases. 

2.  Rapid-growing  trees  may  temporarily  fill  the  area 
while  the  slower  and  more  permanent  ones  are  becoming 
large  enough. 


168 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


3.  Tender  kinds,  such  as  Scotch  pine,  do  much  better 
when  partially  protected  by  more  hardy  trees. 

4.  Mixed  plantings  are  more  beautiful  and  interesting. 

5.  Birds  are  attracted  by  the  greater  variety  of  food  and 
shelter. 

6.  The  ground  is  usually  better  shaded  by  mixed  planting. 
Tall  trees  with  thin  foliage,  such  as  maple  and  birch,  may  be 


Fig.  93. 


Fig.  94. 


Fig.  93. — A  pine  tree  growing  in  an  open  place,  holding  the  leaves  out  to  the 
light. 

Fig.  94. — Pines  and  other  trees  grown  in  a  dense  forest,  which  is  now  mostly 
cleared  away. 


alternated  with  those  which  have  dense  foliage  and  can 
endure  shade  well,  such  as  spruce  and  beech. 

Exercise. — Distance  Apart  and  Shape. — In  a  wood-lot 
or  other  place  where  trees  are  growing  close  together,  notice 
the  distance  from  the  ground  to  the  first  side  limbs  that  are 
beneath  the  shade  of  other  trees  (Fig.  94).  Compare  these 
with  trees  of  the  same  kind  growing  in  open  places.  In  a 
dense  forest  the  side  limbs  are  shaded  from  the  light  and 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FORESTRY 


169 


may  soon  die  and  drop  off.  Those  in  the  open  grow  large 
because  of  the  light  all  about  them  (Fig.  93).  Which  would 
produce  clear  lumber  and  which  would  be  knotty? 

Exercise. — Rings  of  Wood. — Have  some  one  bring  to 
school  a  circular  section  cut  across  the  end  of  a  tree  trunk, 


Fio.  95. — Method  of  mounting  wood  samples  for  study.     (Agricultural  Education.) 


showing  the  rings  of  wood.  Each  ring  represents  one  season 
of  growth.  Count  them.  Are  some  wider  than  others? 
Are  the  wide  rings  indications  of  favorable  or  of  unfavorable 
seasons  of  growth  ?  Notice  the  dark  heart-wood  in  the  center 
and  the  light  colored  sap-wood  near  the  bark.  Figure  95 
represents  a  good  method  of  saving  samples  for  future  study. 


170  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Planting  the  Trees. — ^When  wood-lots  and  wide  shelter- 
belts  are  to  be  planted,  the  ground  should  be  prepared  by 
plowing  and  harrowing,  unless  it  is  too  rough  or  stony. 
The  trees  from  the  seed  bed  or  forest  nursery  are  transplanted 
to  their  new  location  when  of  suitable  size.  The  size  depends 
upon  the  kind  and  size  of  those  with  which  they  are  to  be 
planted.  Evergreens  may  be  transplanted  whenever  new 
shoots  are  not  growing,  but  late  spring  is  probably  the  best 
time.     Early  spring  is  best  for  other  trees  and  shrubs. 

When  very  small  seedlings  are  to  be  planted  in  great 
numbers,  a  small  but  deep  opening  is  made  by  thrusting  a 
narrow  spade  into  the  plowed  soil  and  moving  the  handle 
back  and  forth.  The  spade  is  removed  and  the  little  tree 
roots  pushed  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  The  soil  is  then 
pressed  in  about  the  roots  and  at  the  same  time  the  Httle  tree 
is  lifted  to  make  it  of  proper  depth.  This  plan  of  planting 
is  very  rapid. 

Larger  Trees  must  be  planted  with  more  care.  The  holes 
should  be  larger  and  deeper  than  the  trees  seem  to  require. 
Prune  all  broken  or  bruised  roots.  Prune  off  some  of  the 
top,  to  somewhat  balance  the  reduced  root  surface.  Place 
loose  rich  soil  in  the  bottom  to  come  in  contact  with  the  roots. 
The  tree  should  be  a  little  deeper  in  the  ground  than  it  was 
before.  Fill  the  hole  with  the  best  soil  and  tramp  it  in  well, 
but  leave  a  layer  of  rather  loose  soil  on  the  surface. 

Exercise. — Arbor  Day  Planting. — Plan  for  the  planting 
of  trees  and  shrubs  on  the  school  grounds  on  Arbor  Day 
and  other  spring  days.  Have  the  places  for  planting  each 
shrub  or  tree  determined  in  advance.  Study  the  principles 
laid  down  in  the  reference  bulletins  and  in  this  book,  to  make 
the  school  grounds  very  beautiful. 

Ornamental  Planting. — One  of  the  best  plans  for  the 
planting  of  trees  on  Eastern  farms,  and  indeed  everywhere, 
is  to  place  them  where  they  will  lend  a  degree  of  beauty  to 
the  farm  home.    The  appearance  of  the  surroundings  may 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FORESTRY  171 

be  wonderfully  improved  by  planting  in  suitable  places  a 
number  of  well  chosen  kinds  of  trees. 

Care  and  Management. — The  farm  wood-lot  should  be 
managed  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  regular  harvests  of 
fuel,  lumber,  posts,  and  railroad  ties,  through  a  long  series 
of  years.  Advancing  prices  of  these  materials  make  the 
wood-lot  a  very  profitable  part  of  the  farm. 

In  the  proper  management  of  the  wood-lot  there  are  a 
number  of  principles  to  be  applied.  Some  of  the  most 
important  are  given  here: 

1.  In  cutting  the  crop  take  those  trees  that  are  ripe, 
not  the  young  or  middle-aged  ones. 

2.  Save  the  small  seedlings  and  saplings  to  renew  the 
forest  when  the  old  trees  are  hsirvested. 

3.  Take  out  the  badly  shaped  and  diseased  trees  and 
those  of  inferior  kind.  Such  are  called  weeds,  and  may  be 
used  for  fuel. 

4.  Leave  good  specimens  that  are  old  enough  to  bear 
good  crops  of  seed.  These  will  naturally  re-seed  the  wood-lot 
and  keep  it  supplied  with  young  growth. 

5.  Usually  the  wood-lot  should  not  be  used  as  a  pasture. 
This  destroys  the  young  trees  and .  the  future  life  of  the 
forest.    The  leaf  mulch  is  never  good  in  a  pasture. 

6.  The  stand  of  trees  left  at  any  time  must  be  neither 
too  thin  nor  too  thick,  as  this  affects  the  shape  of  the  trees 
(Figs.  93,  94). 

7.  Some  kinds  that  send  up  shoots  from  the  stumps, 
called  coppice  growth,  must  be  thinned  to  avoid  crowding. 
Catalpa,  chestnut,  locust,  mulberry,  osage  orange,  and  others 
send  up  rapidly-growing  coppice  from  the  stumps. 

8.  Trees  damaged  by  storms-  should  be  harvested  before 
insects  and  diseases  attack  them,  as  these  often  spread  to 
healthier  trees. 

9.  Always  pile  up  and  burn  the  waste  brush  after  each 
harvest.  This  will  check  the  spread  of  insects,  and  reduce 
the  danger  from  fire. 


172  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

10.  Post  up  legal  notices  furnished  by  the  State  authorities 
to  warn  all  campers  and  hunters  against  forest  fires. 

11.  Replant  belts  destroyed  by  fire  or  storm. 

Exercise. — Kinds  of  Trees. — Collect  twigs  of  the  ever- 
greens and  other  trees  and  have  pupils  name  them  for  the 
class.  They  may  learn  the  names  at  home  or  elsewhere  if 
none  in  the  class  know  them.  Students  should  learn  what 
ones  are  most  valued  for  posts,  for  lumber,  and  other  uses. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  common  uses  to  be  derived  from  the  farm 
wood-lot  ? 

2.  In  what  way  is  a  forest  of  public  benefit  ? 

3.  Tell  of  the  influence  of  a  grove  of  trees  on  the  temperature  of 
the  soil. 

4.  How  does  a  forest  control  soil  moisture  ? 

5.  Why  should  homes  be  protected  by  trees  ? 

6.  How  are  streams  affected  when  forests  are  cut  off  ? 

7.  How  does  a  forest  help  to  prevent  a  flood  ? 

8.  On  what  sides  of  the  farmstead  should  shelter-belts  be  grown  ? 

9.  What  width  is  suggested  for  these  shelter-belts?    Why  is  one 
row  of  trees  not  the  best  ? 

10.  What  things  must  be  considered  in  deciding  what  trees  to  plant  ? 

11.  What  tree  seeds  must  be  planted  or  put  in  moist  sand  in  the  fall? 

12.  Which  are  planted  in  early  summer  ? 

13.  Tell  when  and  how  to  start  seeds  of  the  cone-bearing  trees. 

14.  Give  distances  apart  for  planting  trees  in  the  wood-lot,  and 
compare  the  two  plans  given. 

15.  Mention  several  advantages  of  mixed  planting. 

16.  How  does  the  distance  apart  affect  the  shape  of  trees  ? 

17.  Tell  how  to  plant  small  seedlings  in  the  wood-lot. 

18.  Describe  the  planting  of  a  larger  tree. 

19.  How  are  wood-lots  naturally  re-seeded  ? 

20.  What  are  forest  weeds  ?    What  should  be  done  with  them  ? 

21.  Why  not  use  the  wood-lot  as  a  pasture  ? 

22.  Mention  one  way  of  preventing  forest  insects  and  diseases. 

23.  Mention  two  ways  to  help  prevent  forest  fires. 

References. — United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins:  134,  Tree  Planting 
on  Rural  School  Grounds;  173,  Primer  of  Forestry,  Part  I,  The  Forest; 
262,  Planting  White  Pine,  pp.  31-32;  276,  The  Farm  Wood-lot,  pp. 
29-32;  358,  Primer  of  Forestry,  Part  II,  Practical  Forestry;  423,  Forest 
Nurseries  for  Schools.  Circulars  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry,  22,  30,  36, 
97,  117,  130,  138,  145. 


GARDENING  173 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
GARDENING. 

In  the  broad  sense  the  word  horticulture  is  used  to  include 
fruit  growing,  vegetable  growing,  the  production  of  flowers, 
ornamental  trees  and  shrubs,  and  the  uses  of  these  in  beau- 
tiful landscape  effects  about  lands  and  buildings.  We  have 
already  considered  the  subject  of  fruit  growing. 

Vegetable  Gardening. — The  growing  of  vegetables  has 
been  given  the  name  olericulture.  Farmers  may  grow  vege- 
tables either  for  home  use  or  for  market. 

Gardening  is  always  a  special  line  of  farming,  and  may  be 
called  intensive  agriculture.  Large  returns  are  secured  from 
small  areas.  Several  hundred  dollars  per  acre  may  be  ex- 
pected from  a  good  market  garden. 

Elements  of  Success. — To  be  very  successful  in  growing 
good  vegetables  several  conditions  are  required : 

1.  The  soil  must  be  rich  and  well  drained. 

2.  It  must  be  supplied  with  plenty  of  himaus  to  retain 
moisture.    It  should  be  manured  heavily.  , 

3.  Sandy  loam  is  necessary  if  vegetables  are  to  be  ready 
for  early  market. 

4.  The  soil  should  be  plowed  deep  and  the  most  thorough 
tillage  of  crops  practiced. 

5.  The  best  methods  for  the  prevention  of  weeds  must 
be  practiced.  Never  allow  weeds  to  scatter  seed  or  spread 
by  other  means  in  the  garden. 

6.  Select  good  varieties  for  the  table  and  market,  and 
have  the  products  ready  for  all  seasons. 

7.  Prepare  produce  attractively  for  market. 

8.  Gather  the  best  seeds  from  the  best  plants  for  future 
planting;  or  if  seeds  are  purchased,  get  the  best  possible. 

Planning  the  Garden. — The  best  plan  for  planting  the 


174  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

garden  is  to  have  the  crops  in  long  rows,  not  in  ''beds." 
Have  the  rows  run  the  longest  way  of  the  garden,  preferably 
north  and  south  (Fig.  96),  and  have  the  garden  long  enough 
so  that  a  horse  may  be  used  both  in  plowing  the  soil  and  in 
cultivating  the  crops. 

Plant  the  rows  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  use  of  a 
cultivator  drawn  by  horse  power.  See  Table  XII  in  the 
Appendix.  Much  more  profit  may  be  gained  from  a  garden 
cultivated  by  horse  power.     Too  much  hand  weeding  and 


Fig,  96. — School  gardening  in  California  -with  the  long  rows  instead  of.  small 
beds.  Irrigation  water  is  just  flowing  in  the  center  of  the  garden  from  the  portable 
flume  or  trough  along  the  edge  of  the  garden.     (Agricultural  Education.) 

hoeing  is  irksome  and  is  too  often  neglected.  Hand  labor 
is  always  more  expensive  than  horse  labor  in  the  garden. " 

The  perennials  or  permanent  crops,  such  as  asparagus, 
rhubarb,  horse-radish  and  many  of  the  sweet  herbs,  should 
be  planted  along  one  side  of  the  garden  near  the  bush  fruits. 
They  will  then  be  out  of  the  way  when  plowing  the  rest  of 
the  garden  (Fig.  97). 

Time  of  Planting. — Some  plants  used  in  the  garden  are 
very  tender  and  must  not  be  planted  in  the  open,  garden 
in  spring  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  over.  Others  are 
quite  hardy  and  may  be  planted  as  early  as  the  soil  can 
be  prepared.  The  following  lists  may  be  referred  to  by 
beginners.* 


GARDENING  175 

Hardy  vegetables  which  will  endure  a  frost  after  sprout- 
ing in  the  spring: 

asparagus  endive  parsnip 

beets  horse-radish  peas 

cabbage  kale  radish 

carrot  lettuce  rhubarb 

cauUflower  onions  salsify 

celery  parsley  spinach 

cress  potato  turnip 

Late  and  early  plantings  of  several  of  these  may  be  made. 
Injured  by  Frost. — These  vegetables  will  be  injured  by 
a  slight  frost.     They  should  be  planted  after  all  danger  of 
it  is  over : 


beans  of  all  kinds 

muskmelon 

squash 

corn 

okra 

sweet  potato 

cucumber 

pepper 

tomato 

egg-plant 

pumpkin 

watermelon 

There  are  several  of  this  group  that  should  be  started 
earlier  than  the  last  spring  frost.  The  seed  may  be  planted 
in  hot-beds  or  in  window-boxes  in  the  home  or  school.  Egg- 
plant, pepper,  tomato  and  sweet  potato  are  usually  thus 
started  in  early  spring. 

Planting  Seed. — Such  large  seeds  as  corn,  beans,  peas, 
squash,  pumpkin,  and  melons  may  be  covered  with  two 
inches  or  more  of  soil.  Small  seeds  must  be  planted  very 
shallow.  If  the  soil  be  rather  damp  or  heavy  the  planting 
should  be  shallower  than  in  light,  dry  soil.  When  seeds  are 
planted  the  soils  should  be  pressed  firmly  down  upon  them, 
so  that  the  soil  moisture  will  soften  the  seed  and  cause  it 
to  sprout.  For  seeds  planted  in  hills  it  is  well  to  walk  on  the 
covered  seeds.  After  the  packing  is  done  with  the  foot  or 
with  a  roller,  the  rake  should  be  drawn  lightly  over  the  top 
to  leave  a  loose  soil  mulch.  This  saves  the  moisture  by  pre- 
venting its  escape  into  the  air. 

Setting  Garden  Plants. — Those  garden  plants  which  are 
started  indoors  for  protection  should  be  strong,  healthy 
plants  when  set  in  the  garden  after  the  weather  is  settled. 


176 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Care  must  be  exercised  in  setting  the  plants  in  the  garden. 
Avoid  the  hot  sun,  and  if  possible  do  the  work  in  the  evening. 
Save  all  the  root  of  the  young  plant,  but  a  little  pruning  of 
the  leaf  surface  may  be  made. 

Make  the  hole  in  the  mellow  garden  soil  deep  enough 
to  avoid  doubling  the  root.  .A  dibber  is  used  in  the  planting. 


-40  RODS 


I  ' 


n 


r 


Fig.  97.- 


•Plan  of  ten-acre  farm-school.     The  rotation  of  crops  is  to  be  changed  to 
suit  each  locaUty.      (Agricultural  Education.) 


Set  the  plant  a  little  deeper  than  it  grew  before.  Water, 
if  necessary,  before  filling  in  all  the  dirt.  Fill  in  around  the 
roots  and  plant  with  the  very  finest  soil.  Press  this  down 
well,  but  leave  a  little  quite  loose  on  top. 

Hot=bed  or  Cold=frame. — For  the  starting  of  early  vege- 
tables a  hot-bed  is  of  great  aid.  Plants  may  be  grown  in  it 
to  be  set  in  the  garden  later.     Early  crops  of  lettuce  and 


GARDENING  177 

radish  may  be  grown  during  late  winter.  Make  a  tight 
frame  of  boards,  perhaps  six  by  nine  feet,  or  to  suit  the  size 
of  the  glass  (Fig.  98).  This  should  be  about  two  feet  deep 
on  the  north  side  and  six  or  eight  inches  less' on  the  south 
side.  This  gives  a  slope  to  the  window  sash  to  catch  the 
rays  of  the  sun. 

The  hot-bed  should  have  in  the  bottom  ten  inches  of 
firmly  tramped  horse  manure  that  has  begun  to  heat  a  little. 
Cover  this  with  five  or  six  inches  of  rich  garden  soil. 


Fig.  98. — A  back-yard  hot-bed.    These  sashes  were  made  for  this  special  purpose 
with  lap  glasses  to  shed  off  water. 

The  cold-frame  is  made  in  the  same  way  but  does  not 
have  the  heating  manure  in  the  bottom  to  warm  the  soil. 
It  is  usually  placed  on  the  south  side  of  a  building  or  high 
fence  to  secure  the  best  effects  from  the  sun's  heat. 

Care  must  be  exercised  not  to  let  the  temper atm-e  in 
these  frames  vary  too  much.  On  cold  nights,  carpets  or 
blankets  may  be  thrown  over  the  glass.  When  the  sun  is 
very  hot,  the  glass  is  raised  a  little  or  taken  off  to  let  out 
the  surplus  moisture  and  hot  air  (Fig.  99). 

Double   Cropping. — Market   gardeners   often  raise   two 
or  more  crops  on  the  same  ground  in  a  season.    This  is  called 
double  cropping. 
12 


178  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

If  the  crops  follow  one  after  another  it  is  succession- 
cropping.  Such  crops  must  mature  quickly.  Early  peas  or 
radish  or  lettuce  may  be  followed  by  tomatoes,  late  cabbage 
or  celery. 

If  the  crops  are  grown  together  in  the  garden  for  all  or 
part  of  their  time  the  system  is  called  companion-cropping. 
One  of  these  crops  matures  early  and  the  other  is  started 
between  the  rows  before  the  first  crop  is  harvested  (Fig.  100). 
An  example  would  be  early  onions  with  cabbage.  With 
some  vegetables  both  the  crops  may  be  drilled  in  the  row 


::^»iS**«KP'.MSMM^ss;^ '-—,»!? ' 


Fig.  99. — A  market  gardener's  hot-beds  for  the  forcing  of  ca  bles  and 

starting  plants  for  the  open  ground.     (Plant  IiidunLi:>  .y 

together,  as  when  radishes  and  beets  are  planted.  The 
radishes  are  harvested  by  the  time  the  beets  need  the  room. 
Early  and  late  celery  may  be  grown  together.  When  the 
first  crop  is  sold  the  late  crop  is  ready  to  use  all  the  space. 

Storing  Vegetables. — Vegetables  of  several  kinds  may 
be  stored  for  winter  use.  Onions  should  be  well  dried  before 
storing.  They  are  to  be  handled  without  bruising,  and  are 
spread  in  single  layers  on  open  shelves  in  a  dry  place  where 
they  will  not  freeze. 

Celery  and  cabbage  may  be  transplanted  to  a  cold  cellar 
before  the  ground  freezes.  Keep  the  soil  moist  about  the 
roots  and  they  will  keep  all  winter. 


GARDENING 


179 


Beets,  turnips,  and  similar  root  crops  may  be  covered 
with  dry  dirt  in  a  cellar  box.  This  will  keep  them  from  dry- 
ing too  much. 

Tomato  vines  may  be  pulled  up  befor6  heavy  frost  and 
suspended  from  the  ceiling  in  a  cellar  or  cool  room.  As  the 
green  tomatoes  ripen  they  may  be  wrapped  in  paper  and 
kept  several  weeks.  Hubbard  squashes,  pumpkins  and 
watermelons  need  to  be  handled  without  bruising  and  kept 
in  a  dry,  cold  cellar.    By  storing  vegetables  for  late  fall  and 


^£^&^m^L 


Fig.  100. — Harvest  in  the  spring-tune,  from  the  school    garden.     (Agricultural 

Education.) 


winter  use,  and  starting  a  hot-bed  for  late  winter  and  early 
spring  use,  we  can  supplement  the  summer  garden  and  have 
vegetables  for  home  use  all  the  year. 

Exercise. — Frost  and  Rainfall. — Write  to  the  Weather 
Bureau,  at  Washington,  and  get  the  summary  of  the  weather 
record  for  your  section.  Find  the  dates  when  the  late  spring 
frosts  and  the  early  fall  frosts  occur.  Look  up,  also,  the 
annual  rainfall  and  see  how  many  inches  of  this  rain  falls 
in  the  summer  months.  It  is  good  practice  for  the  members 
of  the  class  to  keep  records  of  frosts  in  fall  and  spring.  The 
time  of  planting  garden  vegetables  may  be  governed  by 
these  records. 


180 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


School  Gardening. — The  principles  already  given  for 
vegetable  gardening  at  home  may  be  used  in  the  school 
garden.    Let  the  rows  be  long,  and  each  student  may  have 


DDDDDDDDDDDDBSH 
nDDDDDDDBgg 


^         r 

Fig.  101. — Planting  plan  for  a  one-acre  school-yard,  with  school  garden  plots 
at  the  rear.  The  trees  and  shrubs  are  not  scattered  over  the  lawns  and  playground. 
(Agricultural  Education.) 

a  whole  row  or  a  section  across  several  rows  instead  of  a 
small  bed.  In  this  way  the  students  can  learn  to  garden  as 
at  home.  They  may  use  the  drill  and  wheel  hoe  if  the  school 
can  afford  these  implements. 


GARDENING  181 

The  place  for  the  school  garden  should  be  handy  to  the 
school  but  not  necessarily  on  the  land  owned  by  the  school. 
Do  not  let  its  location  interfere  with  the  school  play-ground. 
See  the  location  in  Figs.  97  and  101. 

The  garden  need  not  be  very  large,  but  let  the  size  be 
whatever  is  available  and  make  the  best  use  of  it. 

Equipment  and  Seeds. — Under  most  circumstances  a 
fence  will  be  required.  A  neat  woven  wire  fence  will  keep 
out  chickens  and  dogs  as  well  as  larger  animals. 

The  school  need  not  own  the  plow  and  horse  tools.  The 
horse  work  will  be  done  by  volunteers  or  by  those  paid  for 
doing  it.  The  school  may  own  several  good  hand  rakes  and 
dibbers,  a  few  hoes,  a  few  spades,  lines  and  stakes  for  marking 
the  rows,  and  some  sprinklers  for  watering.  Seeds  may  be 
purchased  in  small  packages,  and  schools  may  also  get  seeds 
for  school  gardening  by  writing  to  the  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Exercise. — Making  a  Hot-bed. — Allow  the  larger  boys 
to  make  a  hot-bed  according  to  directions  in  this  chapter. 
(See  Fig.  98.)  Probably  most  of  the  materials  may  be 
brought  by  students.  Two  small  sashes  may  be  held  together 
by  two  strips  of  wood  along  the  edges.  When  it  is  all  made, 
put  in  the  manure  and  soil,  and  when  the  bed  has  become 
warm  plant  lettuce  and  radish  seeds.  It  is  well  to  keep  a 
thermometer  inside  as  a  guide  in  governing  the  temperature. 

What  to  Plant. — One  plan  to  follow  in  the  spring  work 
in  the  school  garden  is  to  plant  such  crops  as  will  give  results 
before  school  closes  for  the  vacation  (Fig.  102). 

Some  of  the  quickest  crops  for  spring  use  are  lettuce, 
radish,  early  peas,  onion  sets,  spinach,  early  carrots,  and  in 
some  cases  there  might  be  time  to  grow  very  early  potatoes. 

The  plants  that  could  be  left  growing  in  the  school 
garden  through  the  summer  vacation  would  be  late  potatoes, 
tomatoes,  squashes,  egg-plants,  late  beans,  late  cabbages, 


182 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


late  onions,  late  beets,  turnips,  and  celery.  These  should 
be  taken  care  of  by  some  one  living  near  who  is  appointed 
for  the  purpose.  The  summer  garden  is  too  often  neglected. 
Rhubarb  and  asparagus  may  be  planted  in  spring,  and  when 
well  established  will  be  a  good  feature  of  the  spring  garden. 
The  fall  season  is  not  a  bad  time  to  start  a  school  garden. 
At  that  season  we  may  start  vegetables  that  will  live  over 
winter,  such  as  kale,  winter  onions,  spinach,  and  others. 
The  cold-frame  may  be  used  to  store  over  winter  plants  that 
were  started  in  the  warm  fall  weather.    Lettuce,  cabbage,  and 


Fig.  102. — Children's  garden,  Red  Wing,  Minn.    (Agricultural  Education.) 


cauliflower  may  be  kept  over  and  get  an  early  start  the  fol- 
lowing spring. 

The  hot-bed  may  be  used  in  the  fall  to  produce  quick 
crops  of  lettuce  and  radishes. 

Fruits  and  flowers  should  also  be  used  a  great  deal  in 
the  school  garden.  Select  those  which  will  bear  the  blossoms 
and  fruit  at  a  time  when  the  school  is  in  session.  Early 
strawberries  may  be  used  if  school  is  not  closed  too  early. 
Plant  the  permanent  crops  at  one  side  of  the  garden  to  allow 
free  use  of  the  plow  in  preparing  for  annual  planting.  (See 
Fig.  97.) 

Garden  Experiments. — The  school  garden  in  both  city 
and  country  should  be  a  place  to  experiment.     Something 


GARDENING 


183 


should  be  learned  besides  how  plants  grow.  Such  experi- 
ments as  some  of  the  following  may  be  tried  even  in  window 
boxes,  or  plant  trays   (Fig.  103) : 

Determine  the  influence  of  depth  of  planting  as  sug- 
gested by  Fig.  77.  But  try  it  in  the  garden  as  well  as  in 
the  school-room. 


^^  -     ...  i 

...  .s^l^^ 

U-^M   ^           .^^^M                ' "     ■^4^^^^^^^^aii,k^^^^^^^M||^^^^^^^^^^^^^H£ 

4     -*e-^^^f% 

:..-^*l 

Fig.  103. — A.  The  roof  garden  made  by  children.    The  city  is  a  place  where 

y  experiments  may  be  tried. 

B.  School  garden  work;  a  lesson  in  thinning  plants.     (Agricultural  Education.) 


Compare  two  parts  of  a  row  with  and  without  dust- 
mulch  methods. 

Try  potatoes  by  the  ''level  culture"  and  the  ''hilling  up" 
methods. 

Grow  crops  that  are  not  commonly  raised  in  the  section; 
perhaps  some  new  legumes,  as  alfalfa,  cow  peas,  soy  beans, 
or  vetch. 

The  effects  of  certain  fertilizers  or  of  lime  may  be  tried 


184  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

on  certain  rows  and  other  rows  next  to  them  left  untreated. 
In  Hke  manner  the  effects  of  spraying  may  be  tested. 

Many  soil  experiments  may  be  tried  in  the  garden.  Test 
the  soil  with  litmus  paper  for  acids.  Test  the  temperature 
of  the  soil  in  spring  and  fall. 

Cover  a  square  foot  with  black  material,  as  charcoal, 
and  another  square  with  lime.  Then  test  the  soil  again  to 
see  if  the  sun  heats  one  soil  more  than  the  other.    Which? 

Compare  the  packing,  baking,  and  crusting  effects  of 
sandy  soil  and  clay  soil. 

Germination  tests  may  be  made  to  show  the  benefits  of 
pressing  the  soil  against  planted  seeds;  to  show  the  effect  of 
too  much  water,  which  excludes  the  air;  to  determine  the 
length  of  time  for  sprouting  of  seeds  of  different  size,  as  large 
and  small  radish  seed,  or  the  tip  kernels  and  middle  kernels 
of  an  ear  of  corn. 

Use  of  Products. — If  there  be  suitable  products  from  the 
school  garden  let  them  first  be  used  for  making  up  an  exhibit 
at  school.  Later  they  may  be  sold  to  get  money  for  the 
garden  expenses. 

School  Garden  Plots  at  Home. — Much  of  the  summer 
gardening  may  be  done  at  home  by  the  students.  Parents 
should  be  requested  to  set  aside  a  stated  area  for  use  of  the 
pupils  at  their  homes.  On  this  plot  they  may  grow  the  crops 
desired  for  school  exhibits.  Corn  and  other  crops  may  be 
grown  in  home  plots  better  than  at  school  during  vacation. 
Let  fertilizer  experiments,  culture  trials,  and  spraying  be 
conducted  by  the  students  on  the  home  plots.  Suitable 
bulletins  and  leaflets  may  be  obtained  outlining  contests 
to  be  carried  on  during  the  vacation.  The  products  may  be 
shown  at  school  in  the  fall. 

Ornamental  Gardening. — The  appropriate  use  of  trees, 
shrubs,  vines,  greensward,  or  grass  plots,  and  flowering 
plants  to  adorn  a  place  is  sometimes  called  landscape  gar- 
dening.    Too  little  thought  is  given  to  this  by  the  average 


GARDENING 


185 


person.  The  school  grounds  and  the  home  grounds  too 
often  show  no  ornamental  planting. 

Principles  of  Planting. — There  should  be  a  lawn  on  which 
green  grass  is  growing  thriftily,  but  which  is  well  trimmed. 
This  should  cover  most  of  the  area. 

The  trees  and  shrubs  should  not  be  planted  in  rows  nor 
scattered  at  random  over  this  greensward.  They  should  be 
in  groups,  masses,  borders,  and  corners  (Fig.  104).  Large 
trees  may  be  in  rows  along  roads  or  streets. 


Pig.  104. — Arrangement  of  shrubs  at  the  bays  and  angles  of  the  walks  to  give 

pleasing  picture. 


Shrubs  may  fringe  curved  walks  and  driveways,  but 
are  more  satisfactory  if  massed  in  the  angles  or  curves  of 
the  driveways.  Let  them  form  the  footing  about  the 
foundations  of  buildings — hiding  the  naked  feet  of  the 
structure. 

Masses  of  shrubs  and  trees  or  vines  on  trellises  should 
hide  any  unsightly  structures  from  view  (Fig.  105). 

Let  all  the  planting  assume  grace  and  natural  curvature 
of  outline.     Do  not  prune  the  evergreens  and  shrubs  to 


186  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

assume  grotesque  and  artificial  forms.  Such  were  the  fashions 
of  ornamental  gardening  many  years  ago. 

The  lower  branches  of  evergreens  and  shrubs  should  be 
left  near  the  ground  and  carry  the  pleasing  effect  of  blending 
the  foliage  with  the  greensward  (Fig.  106) . 

Vines  may  be  used  about  porches  and  on  trellises  over 
the  corners  and  in  the  angles  of  buildings.  They  remedy  the 
angular  effects  and  lend  a  softening  beauty  to  the  rugged 
structure. 

The  School  Grounds  should  come  in  for  their  full  share 
of  attention  in  the  study  of  ornamental  planting.    Dr.  L.  H. 


Fig.  105. — Vine3  are  here  used  to  cover  a  glaring  white  stone  building.    The  mass 
of  trees  at  the  left  is  used  to  hide  low  buildings. 

Bailey  has  described  the  conditions  on  the  average  rural 
school  grounds  as  "bare,  harsh,  cheerless,  immodest.''  These 
are  some  reasons  assigned  for  children  disliking  the  school. 

Let  a  change  be  made.  Have  plans  made  before  the 
opening  of  spring. 

Exercise. — Pla7is  for  Planting. — Make  a  sketch  of  the 
grounds  showing  the  permanent  structures,  well,  fences, 
and  any  trees  now  growing.  Add  to  this  the  proposed  plant- 
ings for  the  spring.  Indicate  these  by  lines  such  as  are  used  in 
Figs.  97  and  101.  Use  United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins  185 
and  248  to  aid  in  making  the  plans.  The  former  will  suggest 
what  plants  to  use.    Students  may  supply  these  from  home, 


GARDENING  187 

or  they  may  be  obtained  from  the  native  woods  or  from 
nurseries. 

Planting  may  be  done  on  any  suitable  days  in  early 
spring.  Protect  the  roots  of  trees  well  before  they  are 
planted.    The  easiest  way  is  to  make  a  little  trench,  put  the 


Fig.  106. — Evergreens  may  be  planted  in  close  masses  and  also  as  mngle  specimens. 

roots  in  these  and  cover  with  dirt  until  the  permanent  places 
are  ready.  Evergreens  need  to  be  handled  with  the  greatest 
care,  because  they  are  constantly  losing  moisture  through 
the  leaves.  The  soil  should  not  be  removed  from  the  roots 
at  all  while  being  transplanted.  They  may  be  set  into  small 
boxes  while  being  carried,  or  the  soil  may  be  kept  on  by 
wrapping  with  old  carpet  or  sacking. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  is  horticulture?    Olericulture? 

2.  Give  several  elements  of  success  in  growing  good  vegetables. 

3.  Describe  a  good  plan  for  the  vegetable  garden. 

4.  Name  ten  garden  plants  that  can  stand  some  frost. 

5.  Name  ten  that  are  injured  by  frost. 

6.  Give  directions  for  depth  of  planting  seeds  in  heavy  and  light 
soils. 

7.  Tell  how  to  set  out  tomatoes  and  other  garden  plants. 

8.  What  is  a  hot-bed?    A  cold-frame? 

9.  In  what  two  ways  is  a  hot-bed  heated? 

10.  What  are  the  uses  of  a  hot-bed? 

11.  What  is  succession-cropping?     Give  examples. 

12.  What  is  companion-cropping?    Give  examples. 


188  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

13.  Tell  how  to  store  for  winter  use  some  of  the  common  vegetables. 

14.  What  is  the  best  kind  of  fence  for  the  school  garden? 

15.  What  are  some  of  the  best  vegetables  for  the  spring  garden  at 
school  or  at  home? 

16.  What  ones  may  be  planted  in  spring  for  fall  use? 

17.  What  ones  may  be  started  in  fall  and  live  over  winter? 

18.  Mention  some  experiments  to  try  in  the  school  garden. 

19.  Should  shrubs  and  trees  be  scattered  over  the  lawn? 

20.  Where  should  they  be  planted? 

21.  Tell  of  good  uses  for  vines. 

References. — United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins:  104,  Notes  on 
Frost;  185,  Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds;  195,  Annual  Flowering 
Plants;  220,  Tomatoes;  231,  Spraying  for  Cucumber  and  Melon 
Diseases;  239,  The  Corrosion  of  Fence  Wire;  248,  The  Lawn;  254, 
Cucumbers;  289,  Beans;  434,  Onion  Seed  and  Sets. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
FRUIT  PRODUCTION. 


There  is  an  active  interest  in  the  growing  of  good  fruit. 
Almost  every  farmer  is  interested  in  the  subject.  He  may 
grow  it  for  his  own  use  if  not  for  market.  Fruit  may  be  con- 
sidered among  the  luxuries  of  the  table.  As  the  people 
become  more  prosperous  they  call  for  more  such  luxuries. 
Thus  the  demand  for  fruit  of  the  best  quality  is  increasing. 

The  Orchard. — The  production  of  fruit  naturally  involves 
more  time  than  the  growth  of  most  farm  crops.  For  this 
reason  more  care  must  be  exercised  to  have  the  best  condi- 
tions possible  from  the  very  beginning. 

The  Orchard  Site. — Exposure,  soil,  and  air-drainage  are 
all-important  considerations.  If  the  orchard  is  somewhat 
above  the  surrounding  land,  the  cold  air  of  frosty  spring 
nights  can  drain  away.  Thus  the  early  blossoms  may  be 
saved  from  injury.  Strong  westerly  winds  are  often  inju- 
rious to  trees  and,  therefore,  an  easterly  or  northeasterly 
slope  is  preferred.  If  a  south  slope  were  chosen  this  might 
cause  more  movement  of  sap  in  winter  or  very  early  spring. 
We  should  avoid  forcing  the  spring  growth  too  early. 


FRUIT  PRODUCTION  189 

Heavy  soils  are  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  apples  and 
pears;  while  the  lighter  soils  are  better  for  peaches,  American 
plums  and  grapes. 

The  propagation  of  fruit  trees  at  home  and  in  nurseries 
has  been  described.     (See  Chap.  III.) 

When  to  Plant  Fruit  Trees. — The  age  of  a  fruit  tree  is 
counted  from  the  time  of  its  first  spring  growth  after  budding 
or  grafting. 

Peach  and  plum  trees  are  usually  transplanted  to  the 
orchard  after  one  season's  growth  in  the  nursery.  They  are 
then  called  yearling  trees. 

Apple  trees  for  orchard  planting  may  be  either  one  or  two 
years  old.  Some  orchardists  prefer  the  younger  trees,  while 
others  want  them  older. 

The  planting  may  be  done  in  late  fall  or  early  spring,  the 
latter  being  preferred. 

Setting  Orchard  Trees. — As  much  fibrous  root  should 
be  preserved  as  possible.  The  roots  should  be  kept  from 
the  wind  and  sun  to  prevent  drying  out.  As  soon  as  delivered 
at  the  orchard,  heel  them  in.  That  means  to  cover  the  roots 
with  soil  in  a  temporary  trench. 

The  holes  should  be  large  and  some  of  the  best  loose  dirt 
thrown  in  the  bottom  before  the  tree  is  placed  in  it.  The 
roots  are  to  be  straightened  out,  not  bent.  Pack  the  richest 
dirt  well,  but  leave  a  mulch  of  loose  soil  on  top  to  prevent 
evaporation  of  soil  moisture. 

In  dry  weather  and  in  dry  climates  it  is  well  to  haul 
water  in  barrels  or  tanks  and  water  each  tree  soon  after  it  is 
set.  The  loose  soil  is  to  be  put  on  after  the  water  has  soaked 
into  the  soil. 

Principles  of  Pruning. — The  pruning  of  trees  is  very 
essential  in  securing  the  best  results  in  fruit  growing.  Var- 
ious parts  naturally  crowd  each  other;  the  fruit  is  smaller 
as  a  result  of  this.  Twigs  or  branches  become  diseased  and 
should  be  cut  out.    Limbs  may  break  in  the  wind  and  should 


190 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


be  sawed  off  smoothly  so  the  wounds  may  heal  quickly. 
In  spite  of  these  conditions  we  find  many  old  orchards  that 
are  neglected  and  never  pruned. 

Young  Trees. — ^When  a  young  orchard  is  set  out  the  roots 
should  be  examined  and  any  broken  or  split  surface  made 
smooth  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  straggling  or  extra  long 
roots  should  be  cut  back.  The  tops  should  be  cut  back  to 
a  suitable  height.  With  a  one-year-old  tree  this  may  cause 
the  formation  of  side  branches  to  make  the  future  head  of 


FiQ.  107. 


Fig.  lOi 


Fig.  107. — Peach  tree  headed  too  high. 

Fig.  108. — Low-headed  peach  tree  at  pruning  time. 


the  tree.  It  is  best  to  head  trees  low  enough  so  they  will  be 
within  easy  reach  of  pickers.  Compare  Figs.  107,  108. 
Fig.  109  shows  the  relative  position  of  the  young  twigs  that 
will  become  the  future  main  branches:  (A)  represents  the 
position  of  these  on  an  imaginary  circle  drawn  around  the 
tree.  Here  there  are  three  branches;  perhaps  four  would  do 
as  well.  These  should  be  at  different  heights  on  the  main 
stem  (B),  to  avoid  splitting  away  from  each  other  when 
there  is  a  heavy  wind  or  load  of  fruit. 

Annual  Pruning. — As  the  trees  grow  older  it  is  well  to 
cut  back  a  part  of  the  new  growth  each  year  to  induce  proper 


FRUIT  PRODUCTION 


191 


branching  of  the  long  shoots.  This  will  induce  the  formation 
of  fruit  buds,  fruit  spurs  and  future  fruit  crops  lower  down 
on  the  branches,  and  the  support  will  be  better. 


Fio.  109. — A  shows  the  choice  limbs  which  extend  in  different  directions  from  the 
main  axis;  others  are  cut  away.  B  shows  the  same  Umb  of  the  mature  tree.  If  they 
are  the  same  height  they  will  be  split  off  too  easily  by  wind  when  loaded  with  fniit 


Fig.  110, — ^Yearling  peach  tree,  before  and  after  pruning. 

Cut  out  some  side  twigs  where  they  strike  across  through 
the  tree  top.  Prune  where  they  are  too  thick;  such  pruning 
is  equivalent  to  thinning  the  fruit,  making  it  larger.  Let 
in  the  sunlight.  Cut  out  all  dead  or  diseased  or  broken  parts. 
Prune  where  branches  rub  together.     (Fig.  110.) 


192 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Care  in  Pruning. — Avoid  cutting  very  large  branches  if 
several  smaller  cuts  will  accomplish  the  same  result.  Large 
wounds  are  apt  to  lead  to  internal  decay. 

Leave  the  cut  surfaces  as  smooth  as  possible.  If  a  saw  is 
ever  used,  the  wound  should  be  smoothed  with  a  knife. 

Cut  side  limbs  as  close  to  the  main  stems  as  possible. 
Never  leave  stubs  (Fig.  111). 

Cover  the  exposed  tissues  of  the  larger  cut  surfaces  with 
paint  or  grafting  wax  to  prevent  weathering  and  decay. 

Time  to  Prune. — Pruning  by  pinching  off  small  shoots 
and  disbudding  can  be  practised  to  very  good  advantage  in 


Fig.  111. — Side  limbs  should  be  cut  very  close  to  the  main  stem,  so  the  place  may 
heal  over  and  get  "well."    A  was  properly  pruned;  B  was  pruned  too  far  out. 

the  summer  time  (Fig.  112).  The  main  pruning,  however, 
is  done  in  very  early  spring  before  the  sap  begins  to  flow. 
Some  plants,  such  as  grape  vines,  will  bleed  or  lose  much  sap 
if  pruned  too  late  in  the  spring. 

Exercise. — FtuU  Buds. — Twigs  bearing  both  fruit  buds 
and  leaf  buds  may  be  selected  from  the  different  kinds  of 
fruit  trees  in  the  neighborhood.  Compare  these  and  learn 
to  recognize  fruit  buds  on  trees  in  winter  (Fig.  113). 

Exercise. — Pruning. — ^A  small  tree  or  upright  branch 
from  the  wood-lot  may  be  cut  and  brought  to  school.  Let 
pupils  first  mark  with  chalk  what  limbs  and  twigs  should 
be  taken  off.  Then  have  the  pruning  done  in  accordance 
with  the  lesson  taught  in  Fig.  109.  Either  sharp  knives  or 
special  pruning  shears  (Fig.  114)  may  be  used  in  this  exercise. 


FRUIT  PRODUCTION 


193 


Culture. — The  young  orchard  should  be  kept  growing 
rapidly.  Considerable  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  in  the 
soil  will  help  produce  this  early  growth.  To  obtain  these 
materials  the  best  fruit  growers  sow  cover  crops  in  the  orchard 
each  year,  to  be  plowed  under  in  the  spring.  If  these  crops 
are  composed  partly  of  legumes,  such  as  crimson  clover  and 


Fig.  112. — Young  peach  tree,  summer  primed  by  pinching  off  small  shoots. 


winter  vetch,  they  will  gather  the  nitrogen  for  the  young 
trees  to  use.  After  the  cover  crop  or  green  manure  is  plowed 
under  in  spring  the  ground  is  kept  well  harrowed  until  mid- 
summer (Fig.  115);  then  the  cover  crop  is  again  sown.  One 
influence  of  the  fall  cover  crop  is  to  check  late  fall  growth, 
especially  in  peach  trees,  and  cause  the  season's  growth  to 
harden  up  for  winter. 
13 


194 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


The  first  year  or  two  some  orchardists  grow  a  crop  for 
market  between  the  trees.  In  such  cases  this  crop  should 
have  clean  culture  until  July  or  August.  Fall  cultivation 
is  not  desirable,  as  the  young  shoots  are  more  apt  to  winter- 


FiG.  113. — Fruit  buds  and  spurs  of  four  common  fruit  trees,  apple  and  pear   at 
left,  plum  and  cherry  at  right. 

kill  if  kept  growing  too  late.  For  economy  of  space  peaches 
are  frequently  used  as  fillers  or  temporary  trees,  in  rows 
between  apple  trees.  The  peach  trees  come  into  bearing  by 
the  third  or  fourth  summer  and  may  be  past  their  prime  by 
the  time  the  apple  trees  are  large  enough  to  fill  the  space 
between  rows.     The  peach  trees  are  then  cut  out.    Where 


Fig.  114. — Several  forms  of  hand  priming  shears. 


fillers  are  used,  the  permanent  trees  should  be  set  from 
thirty  to  forty  feet  apart,  according  to  variety  and  soil. 

Varieties. — Choose  varieties  carefully.  There  are  many 
good  varieties  to  choose  from,  in  all  kinds  of  fruit.  Select 
those  which  are  known  to  do  well  in  your  own  chmate  and 
on  similar  soils.     Prof.  M.  A.  Blake,  of  the  New  Jersey 


FRUIT  PRODUCTION 


195 


Experiment  Station,  names  the  following  varieties  of  peaches 
in  order  of  ripening  as  a  suitable  list  from  which  to  choose: 
Carman,  Hiley,  Champion,  Belle  of  Georgia,  Elberta,  Fox 
Seedling,  Edgemont  Beauty,  Iron  Mountain,  and  Krummel 
October. 

Varieties  of  apples  are  classified  as  summer,  fall,  and 
winter,  according  to  the  season  when  they  are  in  prime  con- 


FiG.  115. — Cultivating  an  orchard  with  a  disk  harrow.  Where  the  land  ia 
level  enough  to  prevent  had  washing  of  the  soil,  orchards  should  be  cultivated 
throughout  the  first  half  of  each  summer.  Plows  and  disk  harrows  may  be  used  in 
early  spring.    These  are  followed  by  spike-toothed  harrows  or  Ught  cultivators. 


dition  of  maturity.    Good  varieties  may  be  chosen  from  the 
following  lists : 


Summer 
Yellow  Transparent 
Williams  Early  Red 
Duchess  of  Oldenburg 
Maiden  Blush 
Gravenstein 


Fall 
Wealthy 
Twenty  Ounce 
Mcintosh  Red 
Grimes  Golden 
Jonathaii 


Winter 
Tompkins  King 
Baldwin 
Rome  Beauty 
York  Imperial 
Stayman  Winesap 


The  above  is  merely  a  suggestive  list.  The  planter  is  to 
be  governed  in  his  choice  of  varieties  by  the  results  of  other 
growers  about  him  in  his  vicinity.  Only  one  or  two  varieties 
of  each  season  should  be  grown  for  market  purposes. 


196 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Exercise. — Studying  Apples. — In  the  fall  or  winter  let 
students  each  bring  to  school  good  type  specimens  of  apples. 
Let  each  tell  the  names  of  the  apples  he  brings.  The  col- 
lection may  be  studied  and  the  varieties  compared  so  the 
students  will  learn  to  know  many  of  them.  At  noon  or 
recess  on  the  last  day  of  this  study  let  the  apples  be  cut 
into  sections  so  that  they  may  be  sampled  as  to  flavor, 
texture,  and  value. 

Strawberries. — One  of  the  best  fruits  for  home  use,  as 
well  as  for  market,  is  the  strawberry.  There  are  not  many 
difficulties  in  growing  this  crop  successfully.    Probably  the 


Fig.  IIG. — The  hedge-row  system  of  rairin?  strawberries.     The  straw  mulch  is 
kept  between  the  rows  until  after  picking  time. 


greatest  difficulty  is  in  harvesting  the  crop  after  it  is  grown. 
Strawberries  thrive  best  in  a  very  rich  black  sandy  loam. 

Two  Methods  of  Planting. — There  are  several  methods 
of  planting  strawberries.  Two  are  here  described,  (1)  the 
hedge-row  system  and  (2)  the  matted-row  system.  In  either 
system  the  plants  may  be  set  in  the  early  spring,  or  in 
August  if  the  weather  is  favorable.  In  the  hedge  row  system 
(Fig.  116)  the  rows  are  three  feet  apart  and  the  plants  are  set 
two  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The  runners,  which  all  strawber- 
ries send  out,  are  kept  cut  off  with  a  hoe  or  wheel  cutter; 
except  that  about  three  runners  are  placed  and  allowed  to  take 
root  between  each  two  plants,  making  the  plants  about  six 


FRUIT  PRODUCTION  197 

inches  apart  in  the  row.  Frequent  cultivation  is  practised 
throughout  the  first  season  and  the  blossoms  are  picked 
off  to  prevent  any  fruit  from  forming.  About  December 
first  a  clean  mulch  of  straw  or  other  clean  litter  is  spread 
over  the  soil  and  vines  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches. 
In  spring  this  mulch  is  parted  just  a  little  over  the  rows  to 
let  the  green  leaves  come  through,  and  the  mulch  remains 
on  the  soil  between  the  rows  until  the  crop  of  fruit  is  all 
picked.  Then  the  plants  are  mown  and  the  mulch  and  tops 
raked  and  burned.  This  destroys  the  diseases  and  insects. 
Thorough  cultivation  is  given  until  late  fall  and  a  mulch  is 
again  put  on  as  before.  After  two  or  three  crops  are  obtained, 
the  plants  are  plowed  under. 

In  the  matted  row  system  of  planting,  the  plants  are  set 
three  and  one-half  or  four  feet  apart  and  the  plants  about 
two  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Cultivation  is  given  the  first 
year,  but  many  of  the  runners  sent  out  by  the  plants  are 
allowed  to  "  take  root "  and  form  new  plants  in  the 
middles  or  aisles  within  about  one  foot  on  each  side  of  the 
mother  plants.  A  mulch  should  be  applied  for  winter,  but 
it  is  again  removed  in  the  spring.  After  the  crop  is  picked 
each  year  the  weeds  are  pulled  by  hand  from  the  wide  matted 
row  of  plants  formed  by  the  runners.  The  narrow  strips 
are  cultivated  as  before.  When  two  crops  are  obtained  the 
vines  should  be  plowed  under. 

Comparison  of  the  Two  Systems. — The  hedge-row  system 
requires  more  vigilant  care  to  prevent  runners  from  taking 
root,  and  an  equal  amount  of  horse  power  cultivation  is 
given  to  the  plants.  But  there  is  very  little  hand  weeding 
necessary,  as  in  the  matted  row.  The  mulch  kept  on 
the  soil  through  the  berry-forming  months  keeps  the  fruit 
cleaner;  it  keeps  down  weeds,  and  conserves  the  soil  moist- 
ure. In  the  hedge-row  system  the  berries  are  larger  and 
cleaner;  the  yield  of  marketable  fruit  is  greater,  and  the  work 
of  picking  is  less. 


198  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Varieties. — The  many  varieties  of  strawberries  are 
grouped  under  two  heads  (Fig.  117),  (a)  Those  with  perfect 
blossoms,  bearing  both  stamens  and  pistils,  and  able  to  pro- 
duce fruit  without  the  aid  of  pollen  from  other  plants;  (6) 
Imperfect  varieties,  those  which  have  no  stamens  to  bear 
pollen,  having  pistils  only;  these  must  get  their  pollen  from 
other  perfect  varieties  near  them.  Perfect  varieties  may  be 
planted  alone.  Imperfect  varieties  must  grow  by  the  side  of 
or  near  perfect  ones  which  blossom  at  the  same  time.  The 
pollen  is  carried  from  one  blossom  to  another  by  bees  and 
other  insects. 

For  the  choice  of  varieties  and  methods  of  growing 
strawberries  reference  is  made  to  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  198. 


Fig.  117. — Flowers  of  strawberry,  pistillate  on  left  and  perfect  on  right. 

Other  Small  Fruits. — In  addition  to  the  fruits  which 
have  just  been  described,  the  home  fruit  garden  should  con- 
tain such  fruits  as  grapes,  black  and  red  raspberries,  black- 
berries, currants,  and  perhaps  gooseberries.  These  are  all  so 
easily  grown  that  very  little  special  training  is  necessary  for 
any  one  to  produce  enough  fruit  for  home  use.  The  site  for 
the  home  fruit  garden  should  be  chosen  not  far  from  the  resi- 
dence.   The  soil  may  then  be  enriched  and  put  in  good  tilth. 

Pruning  Small  Fruits. — The  beginner  has  greatest  diffi- 
culty in  questions  of  pruning.  When  the  plants  are  being 
set  out,  all  broken  or  decayed  roots  should  be  trimmed  off; 
smooth-cut  surfaces  only  should  come  next  to  the  soil.  The 
top  should  be  cut  back  somewhat  in  proportion  to  the  reduc- 


FRUIT  PRODUCTION 


199 


tion  of  the  root  area  in  transplanting.  This  maintains  the 
proper  balance  of  root  and  top  in  the  next  season's  growth. 
Grapes  need  very  little  of  the  old  wood  left  for  the  fol- 
lowing season's  growth  of  vines  and  crop  of  fruit.  The  fruit 
is  annually  borne  on  shoots  of  the  same  season's  growth 
(Fig.  118).  Better  grapes  are  obtained  by  cutting  away  con- 
siderable of  the  old  wood  each  winter. 


Fig.  118. — The  grape-vine  showing  blossom  clusters  on  the  new  shoots. 


Raspberries  and  Blackberries  both  bear  their  blossoms 
and  berries  on  the  end  of  new  shoots.  These  shoots  come 
from  the  last  year's  canes.  In  summer,  after  the  crop  is 
picked,  cut  out  all  of  the  old  canes,  and  either  head  back 
or  cut  away  entirely  many  of  the  young  canes.  This  heavy 
pruning  induces  the  growth  of  new  canes  from  the  crowns. 
These  will  bear  the  fruit  branches  next  season. 

Currants  and  Gooseberries  should  not  be  pruned  so  much 
each  year.  The  fruit  is  borne  on  both  old  and  new  wood, 
and  only  the  very  oldest  parts  need  to  be  cut  out. 


200 


PRODUCTIVE  FAIl\nNG 


The  Fruit  Crop. — ^When  good  fruit  has  been  grown  H 
should  never  be  handled  carelessly.  Never  shake  apples, 
peache^j  r.r  r.t h^-r  kinds  of  fruit  to  the  ground.    Pick  the  crop 


¥ia,  119. — Picking  apples  from  ladders  with  saeka  htrngrn^  from  shouldas.    The 
fruit  is  not  bruised. 


Fig.  120. — A.  A  grxxi  wav  to  pack  the  best  peaches  for  market.    The  crates 
each  hold  sLx  half-peck  baskets,  and  are  called  Georgia  carriers. 

B.  Sorting  apples.    For  marketing  they  are  packed  in  tight  boxes  and  barrels. 

carefully,  handling  it  almost  as  carefully  as  eggs.     Bruised 
spots  are  the  first  to  decay  (Fig.  119). 

Pack    the    perishable    kinds    of    fruit — grapes,    berries, 
peaches,  plums,  and  cherries — ^in  suitable  form  for  immediate 


FRUIT  PRODUCTION  201 

sale  in  the  markets  (Fig.  120,  A).  Peaches,  plums,  apples,  and 
pears  should  be  graded  according  to  size,  color,  and  other 
market  features.  More  money  is  thus  secured  for  the  whole 
crop.  When  large  and  small  apples  are  sold  in  the  same 
barrel  or  box  they  bring  only  the  price  of  small  apples  (Fig. 
120).  Grading  machines  are  in  use  for  sorting  peaches  or 
plmns  into  several  sizes;  but  the  hand  method  is  most  com- 
mon. Study  the  figures  showing  methods  of  picking,  sorting, 
packing,  and  marketing. 

Summer  apples  keep  only  a  short  time  and  must  be  mar- 
keted soon  after  they  are  ripe.  Late  fall  and  \ianter  apples 
are  often  stored  for  sale  or  use  later  in  the  winter.  A  good 
method  is  to  pack  them  in  closed  barrels  and  store  in  a  cold 
cellar  at  a  temperature  just  a  little  above  freezing.  When 
exposed  to  dry  cellar  air  they  shrivel  badly. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  reasons  for  pruning  trees. 

2.  Tell  what  side  limbs  to  save  in  pruning  young  trees  just  set  in 
the  orchard, 

3.  WTiat  annual  pruning  should  be  done  in  the  orchard  ? 

4.  Give  several  rules  to  observe  in  careful  pruning. 

5.  Describe  a  good  orchard  site. 

6.  Describe  good  culture  methods  for  young  orchards. 

7.  What  are  fillers  in  an  apple  orchard  ?    Tell  how  used 

8.  Name  several  varieties  of  peaches.  How  many  of  these  have 
you  seen  ? 

9.  Name  some  good  summer  apples.  Fall.  Winter.  How  many 
varieties  do  you  know  at  sight  ? 

10.  Describe  the  hedge-row  system  of  growing  strawberries. 

11.  Describe  the  matted-row  system. 

12.  In  what  respects  is  one  better  than  the  other  ? 

13.  WTiat  are  perfect  varieties  of  strawberries?    Imperfect  ? 

14.  Why  should  the  grower  know  to  which  group  any  variety 
belongs  ? 

15.  Give  suggestions  regarding  the  pruning  of  grapes. 

16.  WTiat  pruning  Is  done  for  raspberries  and  blackberries  ?  When  ? 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  113,  The  Apple  and  How 
to  Grow  It;  134,  Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds;  154,  The 
Home  Fruit  Garden:  Preparation  and  Care;  156,  The  Home  Vineyard; 
181,  Pruning;  213,  Rafipberries;  218,  The  School  Garden;  404,  Irrigation 
of  Orchards. 


202  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
INSECTS. 


Farmers,  market  gardeners,  and  fruit  growers  have  their 
enemies  to  combat.  Their  crops  and  animals  are  attacked 
by  numerous  species  of  insects.  It  is  estimated  that  hun- 
dreds of  milHons  of  dollars  are  lost  by  the  American  farmers 
annually  from  this  cause.  Fruit  that  is  infested  or  deformed 
by  insects  will  bring  much  lower  prices  than  first-class  fruit. 

Structure. — Insects  are  six-legged  animals  with  the  body 
made  up  of  segments  or  covered  with  a  series  of  rings.  There 
are  two  pairs  of  wings,  except  that  flies  and  mosquitoes  have 
only  one  pair,  and  in  a  few  species  of  all  orders  the  wings 
are  undeveloped  or  are  entirely  wanting,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  bedbug.  All  insects  in  the  adult  stage  have  the  body 
divided  into  three  parts:  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the  ahdo- 
men.  The  head  bears  the  mouth  parts,  the  antennce  or 
feelers,  and  the  eyes.  The  thorax,  or  chest,  bears  the  mngs 
and  three  pairs  of  legs.     See  Fig.  122d. 

Many  insects  have  enormous  powers  of  flight,  as  in  the 
cases  of  the  dragon  fly  and  the  honey  bee.  The  Rocky 
Mountain  locust  is  a  migrating  insect  and  probably  flies  a 
hundred  miles  or  more  at  a  single  flight.  Some  of  the  larger 
beetles  seldom  fly  very  far  at  a  time. 

How  Insects  Feed. — The  mouth  parts  of  insects  are  of 
two  kinds:  those  fitted  for  hiting,  as  in  grasshoppers  and 
beetles,  and  those  suited  for  sucking  the  food,  as  in  mos- 
quitoes, bedbugs,  bees,  butterflies,  and  others. 

Those  with  biting  mouth  parts  have  two  pairs  of  jaws 
with  which  they  cut  and  chew  their  food  (Fig.  138).  They 
consume  the  entire  substance  on  which  they  feed,  as  bark, 
leaves,  fruit,  flowers,  or  other  tissues  (Fig.121).  Such  insects, 
when  found  on  the  outside  of  plants,  may  be  killed  by  the 


INSECTS  203 

application  of  some  poisonous  material  to  the  plants  on  which 
they  feed,  as  when  we  put  poison  on  potato  vines  to  kill  the 
potato  beetles.  When  biting  insects  such  as  bark  beetles 
and  tree  borers  feed  in  protected  places  it  is  impossible  to 
apply  the  poison,  and  some  other  remedy  must  be  found  if 
possible.  To  decide  what  remedy  to  use  we  must  first  know 
the  kind  of  mouth  parts  and  the  feeding  habits  of  the  insects. 
Insects  with  sucking  mouth  parts  usually  live  upon  the 
sap  of  plants  or  the  blood  of  animals ;  a  few  of  them,  such  as 
bees,  butterflies,  and  moths,  largely  feed  upon  the  nectar  of 
flowers.     The  stone-fly  and  a  few  others  get  most  of  their 


Fig.  121. — Bean-weevil,  natural  size  and   enlarged,   and   a  much  infested  bean. 
(From  Smith's  "Insect  Friends  and  Enemies.") 

food  when  in  the  larva  or  youngest  stage  and  have  no  true 
mouth  parts  when  they  come  to  the  adult  stage.  Such 
insects  live  only  a  short  time  in  the  adult  stage,  their  chief 
purpose  being  to  lay  eggs  for  the  next  brood;  when  this  is 
done  they  soon  die. 

The  larva  form  of  the  butterfly  has  a  biting  mouth,  while 
the  adult  has  a  sucking  mouth.  This  is  also  true  of  flies  and 
mosquitoes. 

As  sucking  insects  get  their  food  from  the  inside  and  not 
outside  the  objects  on  which  they  feed,  we  cannot  poison 
them.  We  must  resort  to  more  difficult  methods  of  fighting 
them. 

Contact  insecticides  are  substances  which  will  kill  insects 
by  coming  into  contact  with  them  or  by  covering  their  bodies. 


204 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


The  manner  in  which  these  insecticides  kill  is  interesting. 
Insect's  breathe  through  pores  or  openings  in  the  body — not 
through  noses  or  mouths.  When  any  material  clogs  these 
breathing  pores  the  result  is  death.  Suitable  materials  for 
this  purpose  are  oils  and  powders.  The  oils  may  be  mixed 
with  other  materials  to  prevent  any  damage  to  the  plants  on 
which  the  insects  live.  Kerosene  emulsion  and  the  miscible 
oils  are  so  diluted  that  no  damage  will  result  to  the  trees 
or  other  plants. 


Fig.  122. — Moiilting  of  a  grasshopper:  a  nymph  ready  to  change;  6  the  skin 
split  along  the  back  and  the  adult  emerging;  c  continues  the  process,  and  at  d  the 
insect  is  drying  out.    (From  Smith's  "Insect  Friends  and  Enemies.") 

It  must  be  remembered  that  these  contact  insecticides 
really  smother  the  insects  and  must  necessarily  be  applied 
when  the  insects  are  present.  They  should  not  be  appHed 
in  advance,  as  poisons  may  be,  to  prevent  the  attacks  of 
the  insects. 

How  Insects  Grow. — The  skin  or  outside  coat  of  insects 
becomes  very  hard  and  will  not  stretch.  When  a  growing 
insect  has  become  so  large  as  to  entirely  fill  this  coat,  a  new, 
soft  coat  forms  underneath  and  the  old  one  is  shed.  This 
process  of  shedding  the  coat  is  called  moulting  (Fig.  122). 
The  skin  is  moulted  several  times  during  the  life  of  the  insect, 
and  each  time  the  insect  becomes  larger  or  changes  in  other 


INSECTS  205 

respects.  The  chief  changes  with  many  insects  occur  in  the 
last  two  moults.  As  insects  have  no  bones  or  inside  skeleton 
it  is  usually  considered  that  the  outside  skin  is  really  a 
skeleton.  In  this  sense  they  may  be  said  to  have  an  outside 
skeleton.  Muscles  of  the  insect  are  attached  to  this  skeleton; 
and  sometimes  the  texture  is  very  hard  and  horn-like. 

Complete  and  Incomplete  Changes. — All  insects  may  be 
classified  on  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  change  occurring 
in  their  structure  during  the  last  two  moults.  (1)  Those 
making  the  least  change  in  structure  and  appearance  during 
the  last  two  moults  are  said  to  have  incomplete  changes. 
Examples  of  this  are  the  true  bugs  and  the  grasshoppers. 
(2)  Those  making  very  great  changes  in  structure  and  out- 
side appearance  at  the  times  of  the  last  two  moults  are  said 
to  have  complete  changes;  this  is  seen  in  the  wasps,  bees, 
butterflies,  moths,  beetles,  flies,  and  mosquitoes. 

Four  Stages  in  the  Life. — Insects  with  complete  changes 
may  be  said  to  have  four  stages  in  their  lives:  (1)  Egg  stage, 
(2)  larva  stage,  (3)  pupa  stage,  (4)  adult  stage  (Fig.  123). 

The  larva  is  the  growing  stage.  It  is  during  this  stage 
that  most  of  the  eating  is  done ;  and  with  some  insects  enough 
is  eaten  during  this  stage  to  last  them  through  the  other 
stages  of  life.  Some  forms  of  larva  will  consume  several 
times  their  own  weight  of  food  in  a  single  day. 

The  pupa  is  the  resting  or  sleeping  stage  for  many  insects. 
The  larva  has  enclosed  itself  in  a  case  of  some  kind;  some- 
times it  spins  a  silken  covering  called  a  cocoon,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  silk  worm  and  others.  During  this  quiet  resting  stage 
the  insects  go  through  a  great  many  changes.  The  digestive 
organs  are  very  much  changed;  wings  are  grown  and  ready 
to  unfold;  legs  are  present  instead  of  mere  claws  or  pads; 
compound  eyes  are  developed;  often  a  very  different  mouth 
is  formed;  antennae  or  feelers  are  grown  upon  the  head.  The 
pupa  stage  sometimes  lasts  over  winter,  and  in  other  insects 
or  other  broods  it  may  last  only  a  few  weeks. 


206 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


The  adult  emerges  from  the  pupa  case  with  the  new  set 
of  organs  just  mentioned.  It  does  not  look  Uke  the  larva 
that  formed  the  pupa  case  about  itself,  and  yet  it  is  the  same 
individual.  When  a  butterfly  comes  from  its  pupa  it  crawls 
upon  some  object,  as  a  plant  stem,  where  its  folded  wings  may 


Fig.  123. — The  currant  worm:  a,  adults;  6,  larvae  in  various  stages  of  devel- 
opment; c,  pupa;  e,  eggs  along  veins  on  leaf.  (From  Smith's  "Insect  Friends  and 
Enemies.") 

hang  downvv'ard.  The  wings  gradually  unfold  or  ''grow" 
and  in  about  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  they  may  be  of  full 
size  and  firm  enough  to  use  in  carrying  the  insect  in  the  air. 
The  adult  never  moults  and  never  grows  any  larger. 

Special  names  are  given  to  some  forms  of  larvae.  The 
larvae  of  butterflies  and  moths  are  called  caterpillars.  The 
larva  of  a  beetle  is  called  a  grub.  A  maggot  is  the  larval 
form  of  the  fly.     Mosquito  wrigglers  are  really  the  larvae. 


INSECTS  207 

Nymph  is  a  name  given  to  the  larval  stage  of  dragon  flies, 
stone  flies,  grasshoppers,  and  some  others  having  incomplete 
life  changes. 

Exercise. — Collecting  Caterpillars. — Late  in  fall  let 
pupils  bring  to  school  caterpillars  or  other  larva3  of  several 
kinds  which  they  may  find.  Let  these  be  placed  in  boxes 
with  wire  or  cloth  gauze  tied  over  them.  Place  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  box  some  soil  and  insert  in  this  some  of  the  twigs 
with  leaves  for  the  larvae  to  feed  upon.  If  the  caterpillars 
are  found  on  plants,  that  will  indicate  what  food  they  pre- 
fer. If  they  form  pupa  cases  in  the  cage,  these  may  be  kept 
in  a  cool  place  until  the  warm  weather  of  spring  brings  them 
out.  Or  they  may  be  induced  to  transform  to  the  adult 
stage  by  bringing  them  into  a  warm  room  for  a  few  weeks 
in  February  or  March. 

Exercise. — Collecting  Cocoons. — Cocoons  and  pupa  may 
be  collected  during  the  wdnter  months  and  brought  to  school, 
where  the  transformations  may  be  watched. 

Exercise. — Making  Glass  Cages  for  Insects. — Let  the 
pupils  bring  a  few  tin  cans  or  six-inch  flower  pots,  some 
large  glass  chimneys,  such  as  lamp  or  lantern  chimneys, 
and  cloth  netting.  Damp  soil  may  be  kept  in  the  pots  and 
the  chimneys  placed  over  them  with  gauze  tied  on  the  top 
of  the  chimneys  (Fig.  124).  The  cages  may  be  used  at  school 
for  insects  that  are  to  be  observed  by  the  pupils.  Suitable 
plants  may  be  kept  fresh  by  inserting  the  stems  in  a  small 
bottle  of  water  inside  the  cage. 

Insect  Enemies  of  Man. — Among  the  many  kinds  of 
insects  there  are  those  that  are  beneficial  and  others  that 
are  injurious.  Some  of  the  injurious  insects  are  found 
attacking  man  himself;  others  his  prepared  food  and  cloth- 
ing; and  others  harass  the  domestic  animals,  or  attack  the 
crops  in  the  field,  garden,  or  orchard. 

Mosquitoes. — Mosquitoes  are  not  only  troublesome 
pests;  they  are  worse  than  that,  because  they  are  carriers 


208 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


of  the  germs  of  human  diseases.  Malaria  is  spread  by  mos- 
quitoes, and  in  no  other  way.  These  malaria  organisms 
are  taken  into  the  system  of  the  mosquito  with  the  blood 
sucked  from  diseased  people.    In  the  mosquito's  body  certain 


Fig.  124. — A.  An  insect  breeding  cage,  easily  made.    (Agricultural  Education.) 
B.  Moth  and  pupa  cases  mounted  on  cotton  under  glass.    Male  cecropia  moth 
above,  male  polyphemus  moth  below.    (U.  S.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations). 


changes  take  place  in  the  life  of  the  organisms  which  can 
take  place  nowhere  else.  If  the  mosquitoes  were  extermi- 
nated the  organisms  of  malaria  could  not  thrive.  When  a 
mosquito  attacks  a  well  person  some  of  the  germs  of  malaria 
are  apt  to  be  forced  into  the  blood  of  the  person  by  the  sucking 
mouth  parts  of  the  insect.  Thus  every  new  case  of  malaria 
is  started. 


INSECTS 


The  remedy  is  easy  to  understand.  If  the  ponds  or  pools 
of  standing  water  are  taken  care  of,  the  nialarial  mosquitoes 
will  not  be  able  to  find  suitable  breeding  places.  These 
stagnant  waters  may  be  drained  away,  or  covered  with  crude 
oil,  or  fish  maj^  be  kept  in  them  to  feed  upon  the  wrigglers. 
Barrels  and  other  vessels  of  water  must  be  emptied  or  covered 
with  oil.  Houses  should  be  screened  to  keep  out  mosquitoes. 
It  is  believed  that  the  malarial  mosquitoes  are  never  active 
during  the  day  when  the  sun  is  shining. 

Fia.  126 


Fia.  125. 


Fig.  125. — Malarial  mosquito  wriggler  at  left,  common  at  right.  (Div.  Ent- 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agrio.) 

Fig.  126. — Malarial  mosquito  below,  common  above.  (Div.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agric.) 

It  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish  the  malarial  mosquitoes 
from  the  other  common  forms.  The  position  of  the  wrigglers 
in  the  water  when  at  rest  is  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  while  the  resting  position  of  the  common  mosquito 
wriggler  is  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  water 
(Fig.  125).  When  the  adult  malarial  mosquito  is  attacking 
a  person  the  body  is  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  surface 
attacked;  while  with  the  common  mosquito  it  is  nearly  level 
with  the  surface  (Fig.  126). 

Yellow  fever  is  also  spread  by  mosquitoes  of  a  particular 
14 


210 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


group  (Fig.  127).  This  is  a  common  form  in  the  South. 
The  bodies  of  the  insects  are  striped  with  bands  of  black 
and  white.  By  removing  the  breeding  places  of  these  insects 
the  yellow  fever  disease  has  at  times  been  stamped  out  in 
New  Orleans  and  elsewhere. 

Exercise. — To  Study  Mosquito  Wrigglers. — Put  a  glass 
of  water  from  a  rain  barrel,  with  a  few  wrigglers  in  it,  on  a 
window  sill.  Cover  it  with  a  sheet  of  wire  gauze  to  catch  any 
that  transform.  Observe  the  breathing  tubes  that  are  held 
up  to  the  surface  of  the  water  when  the  wrigglers  are  at  rest. 


Fig.  127. — The  yellow-fever  mosquito,  larva,  pupa,  adult.     (From  Smith's  " 
Friends  and  Enemies.") 


Insect 


Flies. — The  eggs  of  flies  are  laid  in  moist  masses  of  decay- 
ing refuse,  such  as  manure,  dead  animals,  slop,  and  many 
kinds  of  garbage.  When  the  eggs  hatch  the  maggots  use 
those  materials  as  food  and  grow  rapidly.  Then  they  cover 
themselves  with  a  leather-like  pupa  case,  from  which  they 
emerge  in  a  few  days  as  adult  flies  (Fig.  128).  The  time 
required  for  the  eggs  to  develop  into  adult  flies  is  only  a 
few  days.  A  few  of  the  adult  flies  live  over  winter  and  these 
are  the  ones  that  start  the  first  broods  when  warm  weather 
returns.  By  the  end  of  the  summer  the  number  of  flies 
has  increased  enormously. 


r 


INSECTS 


211 


Diseases  of  man  are  carried  on  the  feet  and  mouth  parts 
of  house  flies  (Fig.  129).  The  swarms  of  flies  seeking  suitable 
places  to  lay  their  eggs  visit  all  kinds  of  filthy  places.    Again 


Fig.  128.- 


-A  Tachinid  fly:   its  eggs  on  body  of  caterpillar,  larva  and  pupa. 
Smith's  "Insect  Friends  and  Enemies.") 


(From 


these  same  flies  visit  the  kitchens  and  dining  rooms  in  search 
of  food.  Germs  of  disease,  as  well  as  others,  are  carried 
from  the  filthy  places  to  the  food  over  which  they  crawl. 
House  flies  may  well  be  called  typhoid  flies. 


Fig.  129. — The  house  flv:  larva  with  details  at  right,  pupa  case  at  left.     (From 
Smith's  "Insect  Friends  and  Enemies.") 


Two  good  remedies  are  easy  to  apply.  (1)  Clean  up  the 
near-by  garbage  heaps  and  filthy  places  where  flies  could 
breed.    Sprinkle  diluted  carbolic  acid  all  about  such  places 


212 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


frequently.  This  will  help  to  keep  flies  away  from  there  and 
will  kill  many  of  the  germs  of  typhoid  fever  and  other  dis- 
eases which  might  be  there.  (2)  Screen  the  kitchen  and 
dining-room  well  to  keep  all  flies  away  from  the  human  food. 
The  Clothes  Moth. — These  insects  lay  their  eggs  in  stored 
furs,  woollen  clothing,  and  other  such  places.  The  young 
eat  the  garments  or  materials  in  which  they  find  themselves, 
thus  doing  much  damage  (Fig.  130).  The  adult  moths  do 
no  damage  except  to  start  new  broods  of  young.  There 
are  several  remedies.    Probably  the  best  is  to  keep  the  adult 


Fig.  130. — ^A  clothes  moth,  with  its  caterpillar  in  and  out  of  case.     (From  SmithT 
"  Insect  Friends  and  Enemies.") 


moths  away  from  the  stored  materials  by  keeping  these 
articles  securely  closed  up  in  tight  boxes  or  moth-proof  bags, 
in  which  there  is  some  odor  not  agreeable  to  the  moths.  Such 
odors  are  tar,  camphor,  naphtha,  tobacco,  and  red  cedar. 
Moth-proof  bags  may  be  made  of  new  muslin,  sewed  well 
and  closely  tied  after  articles  are  put  in.  Clothes  moths 
have  no  taste  for  cotton  goods.  Articles  will  be  well  pro- 
tected from  moths  if  kept  in  a  trunk  in  cold  storage.  The 
low  temperature  prevents  the  development  of  the  insects. 

Grain  Moths. — The  adult  grain  moth  is  seen  flying  about 
homes  or  places  where  corn  or  other  grain  has  been  stored. 
Its  habits  and  its  size  cause  it  to  be  mistaken  for  the  adult 


INSECTS  213 

clothes  moth.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  corn  and  the  small  grains. 
The  larva  eats  its  way  into  the  kernels,  and  emerges  only 
when  it  has  transformed  to  the  adult  stage.  When  these 
insects  are  in  great  numbers  they  do  much  damage. 

Stored  grain  may  be  treated  by  evaporating  a  dish  of 
bisulphide  of  carbon  on  top  of  the  bin  of  grain.  The  fumes 
settle  into  the  crevices  and  kill  the  insects  (see  Appendix). 
The  bins  should  be  made  as  close  or  air-tight  as  possible 
during  this  treatment.  Corn  in  open  cribs  is  seldom  troubled 
with  grain  moths,  except  in  warm  climates,  as  the  cold  of 
winter  checks  their  breeding. 

Chinch  Bug. — This  is  a  showy  insect,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  it  is  less  than  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long,  the  body  being 
nearly  black  and  the  wings  white.  The  chinch  bug  is  a  true 
bug,  with  a  sucking  mouth,  and  has  a  continuous  growing 
stage  from  the  egg  to  the  adult  form.  The  insects  attack 
wheat,  com,  and  other  grains  and  grasses,  sucking  the  sap 
and  often  destroying  the  crop  or  reducing  the  yield.  It  lives 
over  winter  in  the  adult  stage.  A  single  female  can  lay  sev- 
eral hundred  eggs  which  soon  hatch  and  the  numbers  become 
very  great  by  midsummer.  After  a  wheat  crop  is  killed  or 
has  ripened  they  hunt  for  other  succulent  crops,  such  as  corn. 
As  only  the  adults  can  fly,  the  greatest  numbers  have  to 
migrate  to  the  next  field  by  crawling.  Efforts  have  been 
successfully  made  to  stop  their  march  from  one  field  to 
another  by  plowing  deep  furrows  in  which  tar,  kerosene,  or 
other  materials  may  be  used  to  destroy  the  insects.  It  is 
also  well  to  practise  rotation  of  crops,  and  to  plow  the  fields 
in  fall  in  places  where  the  chinch  bugs  are  abundant. 

Potato  Beetles. — The  Colorado,  or  ten-lined,  potato 
beetle  is  known  well  by  all  who  raise  potatoes  (Fig.  131). 
It  passes  the  winter  in  the  pupa  stage,  and  the  adult,  appear- 
ing in  spring,  lays  clusters  of  yellow  eggs  on  the  under  side 
of  potato  leaves  early  in  the  season.  These  hatch  into  small, 
soft,  red  grubs  which  eat  the  leaves.     The  best  remedies 


214 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


are  sprays  of  poison  on  the  growing  crop.  Paris  green  or 
arsenate  of  lead  is  mixed  with  water  or  with  Bordeaux 
(bor-do')  mixture  and  sprayed  on  the  vines  two  or  three 
times  at  intervals  of  a  few  weeks.  The  Bordeaux  mixture 
(see  Appendix)  is  used  with  the  poison  on  potatoes  for  several 
reasons.  It  prevents  the  injury  to  leaves  by  the  strong 
poisons.  It  holds  the  poison  on  the  plants  longer.  It  helps 
to  prevent  the  early  and  the  late  blight  diseases  of  potatoes. 


Fig.  131. — Colorado  potato  beetle:     a,  egg;  6,  larvae;  c,  pupa;  d,  adult  beetles, 
(From  Smith's  "Insect  Friends  and  Enemies.*') 


The  Codling=moth  or  Apple  Worm. — The  worst  insect 
enemy  to  apple  growing  is  the  codling-moth,  the  larva  of 
which  is  the  apple  worm.  The  markets  of  the  cities  do  not 
want  wormy  apples.  The  insect  which  thus  destroys  the 
apple  crop  is  shown  in  Fig.  132.  The  larva  spins  a  nest  or 
case  in  the  crevices  about  the  trunk  of  the  tree  where  it  lives 
over  winter.  The  adult  emerges  in  warm  spring  weather, 
and  lays  eggs  in  the  blossom  end  of  the  little  apple  just  after 
the  petals  fall  from  the  tree  (see  Fig.  150  C).  The  larva  eats 
its  way  into  the  fruit  and  feeds  about  .the  center.    When 


INSECTS 


215 


fully  fed,  it  crawls  out  and  lets  itself  down  to  the  ground  by 
a  silken  thread.  Later  a  second  brood  may  appear,  to  attack 
the  fall  and  winter  varieties  of  apples,  the  eggs  being  laid 
on  the  outside  of  the  half -grown  fruits. 

The  best  remedies  for  the  apple  worm  are  poison  sprays. 
These  may  be  applied  along  with  other  sprays  to  prevent 
such  diseases  as  apple-scab  and  apple-rust.  Three  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead  are  mixed  with  fifty  gallons  of  the  other 


Fig,  132. —  Codling-moth  and  its  work:  a,  the  injury  done;  6,  place  where 
egg  was  laid;  e,  larva:  d,  pupa;  i  cocoon;  /,  g  adults.  (From  Smith's  "Insect 
Friends  and  Enemies.") 

spray  material  and  sprayed  on  the  tree  in  the  form  of  a  fine 
mist  just  after  the  petals  fall.  The  other  spray  material 
may  be  either  lime-sulfur  or  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  calyx 
cup  of  the  apple  should  be  open  when  the  poison  is  applied. 
This  condition  is  seen  in  Fig.  150  C,  and  the  calyx  after  it  has 
closed  is  shown  in  Fig.  150  D. 

The  Curculio  of  Plums  and  Peaches.— This  is  the  insect 
which  makes  certain  stone-fruits  wormy.  The  peach,  plum, 
cherry,  apricot,  and  others  are  often  attacked  by  it.  This 
msect  is  a  true  beetle,  but  it  has  the  jaws  at  the  end  of  a 


216  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

long  snout  or  beak  (Fig.  133).  When  the  fruit  is  very  small 
the  adult  beetle  cuts  a  crescent-shaped  opening  in  the  skin 
with  its  jaws,  and  lays  an  egg  in  it.  A  grub-like  larva  hatches 
from  this  and  burrows  into  the  fruit,  eating  its  way  to  the 
seed.  This  attack  is  likely  to  cause  the  peaches  or  plums  to 
fall  to  the  ground.  When  the  larva  is  fully  fed  it  leaves  the 
fruit  and  forms  its  pupa  in  the  ground. 

Apples,  pears,  and  peaches  are  frequently  bitten  by  the 
adult  curculio  and  the  wounds  thus  formed  may  make  the 
fruit  become  deformed,  as  in  Fig.  134. 


Fig.  133. — Plum -curculio:  a,  larva;  6,  pupa;  c,  adult;  d,  beetle  at  work  on  a  young 
plum,  showing  a  crescent  mark.     (From  Smith's  "Economic  Entomology.") 

It  is  difficult  to  poison  the  larva  because  it  is  inside  the 
fruit.  The  adult  insect  may  be  poisoned  by  spraying  while 
it  is  feeding  upon  buds  and  young  leaves  in  the  orchard 
before  laying  the  eggs.  Another  time  to  poison  the  adult 
is  when  the  fruit  is  being  eaten  to  make  a  place  for  the  eggs. 
Hogs,  sheep,  and  poultry  in  the  orchard,  during  the  time  the 
early  fruits  are  falling,  will  destroy  many  of  the  curculio 
larvse.  This  will  probably  reduce  the  injury  next  season. 
Some  fruit  growers  spread  sheets  or  other  receptacles  under 
the  trees  and  jar  the  trees  to  shake  off  the  beetles  before  they 
lay  their  eggs.  They  lie  quiet  after  being  jarred  off  and  are 
easily  gathered  up  and  destroyed.    This  should  be  done  very 


INSECTS  217 

early  in  the  morning  and  repeated  every  day  or  two  for  about 
two  weeks  just  before  the  eggs  are  laid. 

Peach  Tree  Borer. — This  insect  does  more  injury  through- 
out the  plum  and  peach  growing  districts  than  any  other 
insect.    The  adult  is  a  beautiful  moth,  resembling  a  wasp  in 


Fio.  134. 


Fig.  134. — Peaches  injured  li>  (uni     >. 

Fig.  135. — Trunk  of  peach  tree  shovMug  a  method  of  keeping  away  peach  borers. 
(Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 

appearance.  The  eggs  are  laid  during  the  summer  upon  the 
bark  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  little  borer  or  grub 
begins  eating  under  the  bark  of  the  trunk  and  becomes 
nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long  by  fall.  A  gummy  for- 
mation indicates  the  presence  of  the  borer.  The  watchful 
grower  will  also  find  saw-dust-like  borings  escaping  in  some 


218  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

places  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Very  frequently  the 
insects  work  in  the  sap  wood  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

Washing  the  trunks  with  lime-sulfur  in  the  spring  and 
summer  is  tried  by  many  growers.  It  will  probably  protect 
the  orchard  from  a  large  per  cent  of  the  borers.  The  more 
common  and  more  certain  remedy  is  to  dig  into  the  trees 
for  borers  in  September  or  October  and  again  in  April  or 
May.    This  is  done  by  digging  the  dirt  from  the  trunks  of 


Fio.  136. — The  flat-head  apple-borer:    a,  larva;  6,  pupa;  d,  adult. 
(From  Smith's  "Economic  Entomology.") 


the  trees  a  few  inches  below  the  ground  level.  After  a  few 
days  dig  with  a  knife  or  wire  for  the  borers  under  the  bark 
wherever  the  gum  or  borings  may  be  seen. 

Grafting  wax  may  be  rubbed  over  these  wounds,  and  the 
dirt  thrown  back  and  heaped  up  around  the  tree.  Heaping 
up  the  dirt  will  cause  the  next  brood  to  work  a  little  higher 
where  they  can  be  more  easily  discovered. 

Apple  Tree  Borers. — There  are  two  kinds  of  beetles  that 
attack  the  trunk  of  the  apple  tree  and  eat  in  the  wood :  the 
flat-headed  and  the  round-headed  borer.  Their  work  is 
similar,  but  the  grubs  and  beetles  are  quite  different,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  136,  137.     The  flat-headed  borer  attacks  a 


INSECTS 


219 


great  many  trees  besides  apple  trees.  The  round-headed 
borer  is  a  serious  enemy  of  the  apple  and  quince  and  is 
sometimes  found  in  pear  trees.  The  grubs  of  these  borers 
live  in  the  tree  trunk  about  three  years  and  then  change  to 
the  pupa  stage  a  few  weeks  before  emerging  as  adults. 

The  best  remedy  is  to  keep  the  adults  from  laying  their 
eggs  on  the  trunks.  This  is  done  by  tying  tar  paper  or 
wire  gauze  about  the  trunks.  The  bottom  of  the  material 
should  be  slightly  in  the  ground  and  the  top  securely  tied 
to  prevent  the  beetles  from  crawling  in.    These  protectors 


Fig.  137. — Round-head  apple-borer:    a,  larva;  6,  pupa;  c,  adult.     (From  Smith's 
"Economic  Entomology.") 


should  be  renewed  before  the  egg-laying  season  of  June  and 
July.  Above  these  screens  the  trees  should  be  whitewashed 
or  sprayed  with  lime-sulfur. 

The  San  Jose  Scale. — These  insects  were  probably 
introduced  into  this  country  from  China  and  were  first 
found  in  America  near  the  city  of  San  Jose  (Ho-s a'), California. 

This  insect  is  probably  the  worst  enemy  of  fruit  trees. 
It  has  sucking  mouth  parts,  and  not  only  sucks  the  sap 
from  leaves  and  fruit  but  also  from  the  more  tender 
branches. 

The  breeding  season  of  the  insect  lasts  throughout  the 
warm  summer  months,  being  checked  only  by  frost.    Large 


2^20  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

numbers  of  young  are  produced  by  a  single  insect,  each  one 
of  which  in  turn  begins  to  produce  young  in  five  or  six  weeks 
from  birth.  It  is  thus  seen  that  where  healthy  insects  of 
this  species  are  not  killed  before  the  warm  weather  begins, 
the  numbers  may  be  so  great  by  fall  as  to  destroy  or  seriously 
threaten  the  trees  of  the  vicinity. 

These  scale  insects  thrive  not  only  on  orchard  and  nursery 
fruit  trees,  but  are  also  found  on  hedges,  some  kinds  of  shade 
trees,  and  roadside  shrubs.  This  makes  it  difficult  to  totally 
destroy  the  pest  in  any  section  where  it  has  become  firmly 
established. 

Remedies. — As  this  pest  does  not  eat  the  tissues  of  the 
plant,  poisonous  sprays  are  not  effective.  The  covering  with 
which  the  insect  naturally  protects  itself  makes  it  a  very 
difficult  enemy  to  fight.  A  few  good  spray  materials  have 
now  been  found.  Soluble  oil  is  on  the  market  under  different 
trade  names;  in  these  the  oil  and  water  are  caused  to  mix 
readily  by  use  of  certain  chemicals. 

Lime-sulfvr  sprays  are  very  successful  in  combating  the 
San  Jose  scale.  One  application  is  made  in  winter  or  early 
spring  before  the  buds  of  the  trees  begin  to  swell.  Another 
application  is  sometimes  made  in  June  or  July  when  the 
young,  tender  insects  are  abundant.  This  summer  spray  is 
made  very  weak  to  avoid  danger  to  the  leaves. 

The  early  spring  spraying  and  also  the  summer  spraying 
will  be  very  valuable  as  a  means  of  combating  several  dis- 
eases such  as  peach  scab  and  apple  scab,  and  brown  rot  of 
peaches.  Thus  the  fighting  of  the  San  Jose  scale  is  not,  in 
itself,  a  very  serious  problem  for  the  fruit  grower. 

Exercise. — Insect  Specimens. — Let  pupils  bring  to  school 
at  any  time  insects  which  are  injurious  to  plants  in  the  home 
garden  or  elsewhere.  The  leaflets  issued  by  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology  at  Washington  will  be  helpful  in  the  study 
of  the  insects  thus  collected. 

Exercise. — Preserving     Specimens. — Insect    specimens 


INSECTS  221 

may  be  killed  by  placing  them  in  poison  bottles  for  a  few 
hours.  These  bottles  should  have  wide  mouths  and  good 
corks.  A  piece  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  which  is  such  a 
deadly  poison  that  even  breathing  its  fumes  will  kill  insects 
and  other  animals,  may  be  fastened  in  the  bottle  by  pouring 
over  it  some  wet  plaster-of -Paris.  A  piece  of  the  poison  as 
large  as  a  hickory-nut  is  enough  for  a  four-ounce  bottle. 
Let  the  plaster  dry  and  then  cork  up  the  bottle.  After 
insects  have  been  killed  they  may  be  pinned  into  a  cigar  box, 
in  the  bottom  of  which  has  been  fastened  a  sheet  of  thick  cor- 


FiG.  138. — A   caterpillar-hunting   ground   beetle   and   its   larva.      (From   Smith's 
"Insect  Friends  and  Enemies."^ 

rugated  paste-board.  A  good  way  of  preserving  large  butter- 
flies, moths,  and  other  large  insects  is  shown  in  Fig.  124  B. 
Beneficial  Insects. — Not  all  insects  are  harmful.  There 
are  indeed  a  great  many  groups  that  are  beneficial  in  one  way 
or  another.  The  silk  worm  produces  a  product  worth  many 
millions  of  dollars  annually  in  the  commerce  of  the  world. 
Honey  bees  store  large  quantities  of  honey  used  as  human 
food,  and  also  carry  pollen  from  blossom  to  blossom,  thus 
increasing  the  crops  of  fruit.  The  ground  beetle  (Fig.  138), 
tiger  beetle,  and  some  other  insects  prey  upon  other  injurious 
insects  and  thus  act  as  a  balance  in  Nature's  forces  for  the 
control  of  the  enemies  of  man.  The  spotted  lady-beetle  (Fig. 
139)  destroys  many  thousands  of  the  San  Jose  scale  insects. 


222 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


There  are  certain  parasitic  insects  living  on  the  more 
injurious  forms  and  this  aids  materially  in  the  control  of 
insect  pests.     (See  Figs.  140,  141.) 

Exercise. — Parasites  of  Insects. — In  the  breeding  cages 
or  in  the  boxes  where  cocoons  are  kept,  watch  carefully  for 
the  indications  of  parasites.  Some  of  them  may  be  similar 
to  one  or  more  figures  in  this  chapter. 

Birds  as  Insect  Destroyers. — Many  kinds  of  birds  are 
great  friends  to  the  farmer  and  his  crops,  because  of  the  great 
numbers  of  noxious  insects  which  they  destroy.    Some  birds 


Fig.  139. — 15-spotted  lady-beetle:    a,  larva;  h,  pupa;  d-g,  adult  varieties.     (From 
Smith's  "Insect  Friends  and  Enemies.") 


do  harm  at  one  season  by  eating  fruits  or  grain,  but  they  com- 
pensate for  it  at  other  times  by  eating  insect  pests.  The 
majority  of  the  land  birds  eat  insects  at  all  times;  but  during 
the  nesting  season  their  food  is  largely  composed  of  insects. 
Exercise. — Common  Birds. — The  members  of  the  class 
should  name  and  briefly  describe  the  birds  that  they  know. 
Have  the  food-habits  of  these  commonest  birds  reported  by 
some  one.  United  States  Farmers'  Bulletin  54,  "Some 
Common  Birds  in  Their  Relation  to  Agriculture,'^  will  be 
very  helpful.  Considerable  interest  should  be  taken  in  the 
protection  of  insect  destroyers. 


INSECTS 


223 


Toads  as  Insect  Destroyers. — The  common  toad,  found 
in  the  garden,  hves  almost  entirely  upon  insects.  He  eats 
enormous  numbers,  most  of  which  are  of  the  harmful  kinds. 


Fig.  140. — Digger-wasp  carrying  a  cicada  to  its  home. 

Fig.  141. — Sphinx  caterpillar  covered  with  cocoons  of  parasites.    (From  Smith's 
"Insect  Friends  and  Enemies.") 

Toads  have  no  harmful  habits.  They  should  be  protected 
because  of  the  good  they  do.  A  single  full-grown  toad  will 
do  several  dollars'  worth  of  good  in  a  garden  each  season. 


REVIEW. 

1.  Describe  the  structure  of  insects,  as  to  body,  wings,  legs,  and 
parts  on  the  head. 

2.  Tell  of  the  two  kinds  of  mouth  parts  of  insects. 

3.  Why  cannot  insects  that  have  sucking  mouth  parts  be  poisoned  ? 
How  are  they  usually  controlled  ? 

4.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  skeleton  of  an  insect. 

5.  Tell  how  insects  grow. 

6.  Tell  what  is  meant  by  the  terms  complete  change  and  incom- 
plete change  in  the  development  of  insects. 

7.  Name  the  four  stages  in  the  life  of  insects  having  complete 
change. 

8.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  larval  stage. 

9.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  pupal  stage. 

10.  To  what  forms  of  larvae  do  these  terms  apply:  caterpillar,  grub, 
maggot,  wriggler,  nymph? 


224  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

11.  Tell  how  malarial  mosquitoes  develop  that  disease  and  impart 
it  to  man. 

12.  Tell  two  differences  between  malarial  mosquitoes  and  common 
mosquitoes. 

13.  Tell  of  three  or  more  ways  of  preventing  the  spread  of  human 
diseases  by  mosquitoes. 

14.  Tell  how  mosquito  wrigglers  breathe. 

15.  Describe  the  life  development  of  the  house  fly. 

16.  How  do  flies  spread  typhoid  and  other  human  diseases  ? 

17.  What  are  the  remedies  to  be  used  against  the  fly? 

18.  Tell  how  to  prevent  damage  from  clothes  moths. 

19.  Describe  the  damage  done  by  grain  moths. 

20.  In  what  ways  are  chinch  bugs  injurious  ? 

21.  What  are  the  different  means  of  control? 

22.  Tell  of  the  injuries  from  potato  beetles.  How  are  these  insects 
controlled  ? 

23.  Describe  the  life  and  work  of  the  codling-moth. 

24.  Tell  at  just  what  time  to  spray  to  fight  the  spring  brood.    Why? 

25.  What  injury  is  done  by  the  curcuho  beetles  ? 

26.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  of  fighting  it  ? 

27.  Tell  how  the  peach  tree  borer  may  be  found. 

28.  What  are  the  remedies  for  this  insect? 

29.  Name  two  kinds  of  apple  tree  borers  and  tell  what  harm  they  do. 

30.  Why  is  it  so  difficult  to  control  the  San  Jose  scale? 

31.  What  two  materials' are  used  to  spray  the  scale?  When  are  they 
used? 

32.  Name  some  groups  of  beneficial  insects,  and  tell  of  their  benefits. 

References. — Leaflets  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology.  U.  S. 
Farmers'  Bulletins:  120,  Insects  Affecting  Tobacco;  127,  Important 
Insecticides;  145,  Carbon  Bisulfid  as  an  Insecticide;  178,  Insects 
Injurious  in  Cranberry  Culture;  196,  Usefulness  of  the  American  Toad; 
284,  Insect  and  Fungous  Enemies  of  the  Grape  East  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  290,  314,  344,  all  on  The  Cotton  Boll  Weevil;  456,  Our 
Grosbeaks  and  Their  Value  to  Agriculture;  459,  House  Flies. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

DISEASES   OF  PLANTS— SPRAYING. 

Diseases  of  Plants. — There  are  a  great  many  diseases 
which  attack  the  plants  grown  in  field,  garden,  and  orchard. 
These  diseases  are  of  three  main  types:  (1)  Those  which  are 
produced  by  a  fungous  growth  of  minute  plants,  on  the 
tissues  of  the  useful  plants,  examples  of  which  are  rust  on 
leaves  and  smut  on  grain.    (2)  Those  produced  by  bacteria, 


DISEASES   OF  PLANTS— SPRAYING  225 

as  in  the  case  of  pear  blight  and  peach  yellows.  (3)  Those 
due  to  poor  drainage  or  poor  soil  or  unfavorable  climate; 
these  would  not  be  contagious. 

Prevention  of  Plant  Diseases. — The  spores  or  organisms 
from  which  the  fungous  diseases  develop  may  be  killed  by 
special  spray  materials.  These  should  be  killed  before  they 
get  into  the  leaves  or  other  parts  of  the  plants.  Spraying  is 
a  means  of  preventing  disease  rather  than  curing  it.  The 
spray  materials  are  made  just  strong  enough  to  kill  the  dis- 
ease germs  and  weak  enough  not  to  harm  the  useful  plants 
that  are  sprayed.  (See  Appendix  for  formulas  of  spray 
mixtures.) 

Exercise. — Studying  Plant  Diseases. — Specimens  of  va- 
rious diseases  found  on  fruits,  vegetables,  trees,  and  other 
plants  may  be  brought  to  school.  Let  the  pupils  name  all 
of  these  possible.  If  there  are  any  that  seem  to  be  serious 
diseases  in  the  neighborhood  at  the  time  they  may  be  re- 
ported or  specimens  sent  to  the  State  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  of  that  State.  Ask  that  Station  for  special 
bulletins  telling  how  to  control  the  particular  disease. 

Brown  Rot  of  Peaches. — This  disease  causes  decay  of 
the  fruit  and  the  blighting  of  the  twigs  of  peaches,  plums, 
and  cherries.  Fig.  142  shows  the  rot  on  peaches.  The  trouble 
with  peaches  is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  early 
varieties.  After  the  rotted  fruits  have  become  dry  they 
cling  to  the  trees,  and  thus  hold  the  spores  over  until  the 
next  year.  Remove  all  such  dried  fruits  from  the  trees  in 
the  winter.  The  sprayings  made  to  control  San  Jose  scale 
will  help  to  keep  this  disease  in  check. 

Peach  Scab  or  Black  Spot. — This  disease  gives  the  fruit 
a  sooty  appearance,  because  of  the  presence  of  grayish  black 
spots.  The  scab  may  become  so  bad  as  to  cause  the  fruits 
to  crack  open.  It  is  thought  that  this  disease  is  worse  in 
orchards  where  the  air-drainage  or  ventilation  is  poor. 
Spray  with  the  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture,  given  in  the 
16 


226  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Appendix  as  the  8 — 8 — 50  formula,  just  after  the  blossom 
calyx  is  shed  from  the  young  fruits  (Fig.  143).  Repeat  this 
spray  once  or  twice  at  intervals  of  three  weeks. 

Peach  Leaf  Curl. — In  early  spring,  when  this  disease 
occurs,  the  leaves  become  thickened,  curled,  and  distorted 
(Fig.  144).  The  diseased  leaves  turn  brown  and  fall  off. 
The  loss  of  leaves  from  this  cause  may  be  very  severe  in  the 
worst  cases.  The  spraying  for  scale  insects  will  usually 
keep  the  leaf  curl  within  control. 


Fio.  142. — Brown-rot  disease  of  the  peach.     Fresh  fruit  above,  last  year's  fruit 
clinging  to  twigs.     (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 

Peach  Yellows. — The  exact  cause  of  this  disease  is  not 
yet  definitely  known,  although  a  great  deal  of  study  has 
been  given  to  it.  The  real  cause  may  be  due  to  some  form 
of  bacteria,  as  the  disease  is  very  contagious  in  the  peach 
orchard.  In  the  earher  stages  of  the  disease  the  leaves  on 
some  shoots  are  very  abundant  and  small.  Fig.  145  shows 
the  appearance  in  spring.  Wiry  shoots  are  sent  out  from 
the  main  branches.  The  leaves  may  even  become  yellowish- 
green  in  color,  and  quite  sticky.  In  advanced  stages  of 
yellows  the  fruit  appears  ripe  much  ahead  of  its  time;  the 


DISEASES   OF  PLANTS— SPRAYING 


227 


skin  and  flesh  are  spotted  and  blotched  with  red,  the  flavor 
being  bitter  or  insipid.  The  best  remedy  is  to  cut  out  the 
diseased  tree  as  soon  as  detected,  and  burn  it.  Disinfect 
instruments  used  to  help  prevent  spread  to  healthy  trees. 

Little=Peach. — This  disease  of  the  peach  is  somewhat 
like  yellows,  the  leaves  becoming  yellowish-green  and  drop- 
ping as  in  yellows.  But  there  is  one  important  difference. 
Instead  of  appearing  ripe  too 
early,  the  fruits  remain  very  small 
and  are  green  much  too  long. 
(See  Fig.  146.)  The  diseased 
trees  should  be  burned  as  in  the 
case  of  yellows. 

Apple  Scab. — This  disease  of 
the  apple  is  very  bad  in  nearly 
all  regions  where  the  crop  is 
grown  for  market.  It  is  very 
similar  to  the  scab  disease  found 
on  pears.  It  attacks  both  leaves 
and  fruit.  This  disease  appears  at 
blossom  time  and  soon  after,  caus- 
ing large  numbers  of  the  small 
apples  to  drop  from  the  tree. 
The  fruits  that  cling  on  may  be- 
come affected  and  will  be  small, 
irregular,  rough,  and  blotched. 
Irregular,  roughened,  brown 
spots,  more  or  less  running  together,  are  formed  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  apple.  The  roughened  or  scabby  area  may  cover 
all  one  side  of  the  apple  and  even  cause  it  to  crack.  It  is  from 
this  scabby  appearance  that  the  disease  takes  its  common 
name.  The  disease  on  the  leaves  causes  sooty  spots  on  the 
under  side.  Later  these  leaves  become  yellow  and  drop  from 
the  tree,  in  severe  cases  taking  most  of  the  leaves  from 
the  tree. 


Fig.  143.— Time  for  first  svim- 
mer  spray  on  peach  and  plum,  as 
the  calyx  is  being  shed  from  young 
fruit,  (Experiment  Station,  N.J.) 


228 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


This  disease  is  prevented  by  spraying  in  early  spring 
before  the  buds  swell,  with  lime-sulfur  preparation.  This 
is  repeated  with  a  weaker  solution  just  before  the  blossom 
buds  open,  and  again  just  after  the  petals  of  the  blossoms 
fall  to  the  ground. 


Fia.  144. 


-Leaf-curl  disease.      Healthy  twig  on  right,  the  disease  prevented    by 
lime-sulfur  spray.     (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


Exercise. — Studying  Apple  Scab. — Have  some  one  bring 
to  school  a  few  samples  of  scabby  apples  from  the  grocery 
store  or  home  orchard.  The  class  should  all  become  familiar 
with  the  ways  in  which  the  fruit  is  affected  by  the  scab. 

Apple  Rust. — Leaves  attacked  by  apple  rust  appear  as 
though  covered  in  blotches  by  a  heavy  coat  of  iron  rust. 
The  whole  under  surface  may  present  a  rusty  appearance 
(Fig.  147).     The  trouble  may  spread  to  tender  twigs  and 


I 


DISEASES   OF  PLANTS— SPRAYING 


229 


even  to  the  fruits  in  some  cases.  The  life  of  this  disease  is 
interesting,  and  a  knowledge  of  it  leads  to  the  proper  remedy. 
The  apple  rust  fungus  lives  a  portion  of  its  life  upon  the 
apple  tree  or  the  quince  tree,  as  already  described,  but  it 
appears  in  a  very  different  form  upon  red  cedar  trees  that 
may  be  growing  near  the  orchard.  The  growth  on  the  cedar 
tree  is  popularly  known  as  cedar  apple.  These  cedar  apples 
in  spring  appear  as  large  masses  of  yellow  or  orange-colored 


Flo.  145. — Twigs  of  peach  in  spring-time.     Two  at  right  affected  with  "yellows, 
healthy  twigs  at  left.      (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


jelly  clinging  to  the  branches  of  the  cedar  tree;  in  winter 
they  are  small,  brown  or  purple  galls.  These  enlarge  next 
spring.  It  is  from  these  cedar  apples  that  the  disease  spreads 
to  the  orchard. 

If  this  disease  is  very  prevalent  in  the  orchard,  it  may  be 
best  to  remove  the  cedar  trees  near  the  orchard.  This  would 
greatly  check  or  stamp  out  the  disease.  Spraying  as  for 
apple  scab  will  perhaps  aid  a  little  in  checking  the  apple 
rust,  but  is  not  a  complete  remedy. 


230  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Exercise. — Cedar  Apples.— In  the  fall  or  winter  stu- 
dents may  find  specimens  of  the  winter  form  of  the  cedar 
apple,  above  described,  on  the  cedar  trees  near  apple  orchards. 
If  these  are  found  use  the  specimens  to  illustrate  the  lesson 
on  apple*(disease. 

Potato  Scab. — On  the  surface  of  Irish  potatoes  in  the 
winter  time  may  be  found  scabby-looking  spots  or  areas 
caused  by  the  potato  scab  fungus.  The  disease  when  very 
bad  produces  deep  depressions  or  pits  in  the  surface  of  the 


Fig.  146. — Disease  called  "little-peach."     Healthy  fruit  above. 
(Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 

tubers.  The  crop  yield  may  be  greatly  reduced  by  the 
attacks  of  this  disease.  The  spread  of  the  disease  may  be  in 
several  ways: 

1.  The  germs  of  potato  scab  will  grow  more  rapidly 
when  there  has  been  a  heavy  application  of  fresh  stable 
manure  to  the  field  just  before  the  potatoes  are  planted.  It 
is  better  to  manure  the  field  one  year  in  advance  if  possible, 
or  to  use  some  well-rotted  manure. 

2.  When  lime  is  applied  to  the  soil  the  disease  will  Hkely 
be  worse  on  the  potato  crop.  Green  manure  plowed  under 
in  preparing  the  field  for  potatoes  will  help  to  counteract 
this  action  of  the  lime. 

3.  Soils  from  which  a  very  scabby  crqp  of  potatoes  has 


DISEASES   OF  PLANTS— SPRAYING  231 

been  harvested  recently  will  probably  cause  the  next  crop 
to  be  diseased  in  like  manner.  Rotation  of  crops  is,  therefore, 
advisable.  Do  not  use  beets  and  other  root  crops  in  this 
rotation,  as  the  scab  disease  also  attacks  them. 

4.  Seed  potatoes  are  usually  more  or  less  scabby  or  have 
the  germs  of  the  disease  upon  them.  If  these  are  planted 
without  treatment  the  disease  will  likely  be  introduced  into 
the  soil. 

The  treatment  of  seed  potatoes  to  prevent  the  planting  of 
scab  disease  is  now  a  very  cheap  and  simple  process.    The 


J 

Fio.  147. — Apple  rust  on  leaf  and  twig. 

seed  potatoes  are  soaked  for  two  hours  in  a  solution  of  forma- 
lin. This  solution  is  made  by  mixing  one  pint  of  the  strong- 
est formalin  in  thirty-two  gallons  of  water.  This  kills  the 
disease  germs  but  does  no  harm  to  the  potatoes.  The  liquid 
may  be  used  for  several  sacks  of  potatoes. 

Exercise. — Showing  Potato  Scab. — Specimens  of  Irish 
potatoes  having  the  scab  disease  should  be  brought  to  school 
and  shown  to  all  the  students. 

Grain  Smut. — In  fields  of  grain,  when  it  is  in  head,  may 
be  often  seen  a  black  powder  which  clings  to  the  husks  of 
the  grain  (Fig.  148).  This  black  powder  is  the  fruit  of  a 
disease  growing  inside  of  the  grain  stalks.     The  disease  is 


232 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


called  grain  smut,  for  it  causes  the  black  appearance,  like 

stove  soot,  on  the  heads  of  grain.    Oats  and  barley  are  often 

very  badly  injured  by  this  disease. 

Any  farmer  can  prevent  his  grain  from  having  the  disease 

by  a  very  sitnple  and  cheap  process.     The  seed  should  be 

treated  in  a  liquid  before  it 
is  planted.  The  liquid  used 
is  formalin  and  water.  If 
into  a  common  barrel  are 
poured  twenty  gallons  of 
water  and  then  one  half- 
pint  of  strong  formalin  is 
thoroughly  mixed  with  it, 
the  liquid  will  be  ready  for 
use.  The  seed  grain  is  placed 
in  a  loose  sack  and  then 
lowered  into  the  barrel  of 
liquid;  after  about  ten  min- 
utes all  of  the  black  smut  or 
spores  in  the  seed  will  be 
killed.  The  sack  is  then 
raised  up  and  allowed  to 
drain  for  a  few  minutes. 
The  wet  seed  is  then  spread 
out  to  dry  before  it  is 
planted.  This  drying  may 
be  done  on  a  clean  barn 
floor,  in  a  wagon-box,  or  on 
a  cloth   stack-coYcr  spread 

on  the  ground.     The  seed  should  be  spread  out  thin  enough 

so  that  it  will  dry  before  it  begins  to  sprout. 

The  same  liquid  may  be  used  for  many  sacks  of  seed, 

so  that  the  cost  of  treating  enough  seed  for  a  large  field  is 

not  great. 

Exercise. — Treating  Oats  for  Smut.— It  is  suggested  that 


Fig.  148. — Loose  smut  of  oats  mounted 
on  cotton  imder  glass.     (A.  E.) 


DISEASES   OF  PLANTS— SPRAYING  233 

the  pupils  bring  some  oats  in  a  sack,  and  treat  them  in  a 
pail  of  water  with  a  little  formalin  in  it. 

Exercise. — Showing  Grain  Smut. — Perhaps  sample  heads 
of  diseased  grain  can  be  brought  to  school.  If  so,  preserve 
them  as  shown  in  Fig.  148.  Some  one  should  bring  samples 
of  corn  smut  disease  to  show  to  the  class.  Corn  smut  is  not 
prevented  by  the  formalin  treatment. 

Exercise. — Treating  Seed  Potatoes. — The  pupils  may 
bring  a  pail  and  a  few  potatoes  from  home.  A  half- 
ounce  (four  teaspoonfuls)  of   formalin  should  be  added  to 


Fig.  149. — Spraying  orchard  trees  in  early  spring,  for  scale  insects,  with  barrel  pxunp. 
(Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 

one  gallon  of  water.  Soak  the  potatoes  in  this  mixture 
for  two  hours.  Urge  the  pupils  to  tell  of  the  method 
at  their  homes. 

Spraying. — Under  ordinary  conditions  a  bearing  apple 
orchard  should  be  sprayed  at  least  three  times  each  spring 
and  perhaps  once  in  the  summer. 

The  first  spraying  is  to  be  made  before  the  buds  swell  in 
very  early  spring  (Fig.  149).  This  is  to  prevent  scab  and 
similar  diseases  and  to  kill  the  San  Jose  scale  insects.  For 
this  spraying  it  is  well  to  use  either  soluble  oil  at  the  rate  of 
one  gallon  of  the  oil  to  fifteen  gallons  of  water,  or  to  use  the 


234 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


lime-sulfur  solution.     Commercial  concentrated  lime-sulfur 
is  diluted  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  to  nine  of  water. 

The  second  spraying  is  made  just  before  the  blossom  opens 


Fig.  150. — A.  Too  soon  to  spray  for  apple  -worm  or  codling-moth.     Spray  for 
apple  scab  at  this  stage  or  before. 

B.  Apples  in  full  bloom.     Spraying  now  would  poison  the  honey  bees. 

C.  Petals  just  fallen;  just  the  right  time  to  spray  for  apple  worm.     Poison 
will  fall  in  the  calyx  cup  of  the  blossom  and  kill  the  worm  as  soon  as  hatched 


down 


D,  Too  late  to  spray  for  apple  worm.     The  calyx  is  closed  and  apples  turned 
(Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


(Fig.  150,  A) .  It  is  to  control  apple  scab  disease  and  to  kill  all 
leaf -eating  insects.  This  time  use  one  and  one-half  gallons 
of  strong  lime-sulfur  solution  and  three  pounds  of  arsenate 


DISEASES   OF   PLANTS— SPRAYING  235 

of  lead  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  This  will  accomplish  the 
two  purposes  at  the  same  time. 

The  third  spring  spraying  is  made  just  after  the  petals 
fall  from  the  blossoms.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  control  the 
codling-moth.  It  also  aids  in  preventing  the  trouble  from 
apple  scab.  As  there  are  two  purposes,  use  the  combined 
sprays  as  in  the  second  spring  spraying.  Study  Figs.  150  A, 
B,  C,  D  together. 

For  the  control  of  codling-moth  on  fall  and  winter  varie- 
ties of  apples,  a  midsummer  spraying  is  advisable.    For  this 


Fig.  151. — Summer  spraying  by  school  students.     (Agricultural  Education.) 

use  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

Principles  of  Spraying. — Always  select,  if  possible,  a 
bright  clear  day  without  much  wind  for  all  kinds  of  spraying. 

Do  the  work  carefully  and  thoroughly.  Let  all  parts  of 
the  plants  be  touched  with  the  spray  materials. 

Use  special  nozzles  which  throw  the  materials  into  fine 
mists.  Learn  of  the  latest  and  best  nozzles  and  spraying 
apparatus  by  writing  to  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
of  the  State.  Always  consider  what  are  the  special  purposes 
of  the  particular  spraying,  and  use  the  proper  materials  for 
those  purposes. 


236  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

An  insecticide  is  to  be  used  for  insects,  and  a  fungicide 
used  for  the  plant  diseases.  These  may  be  combined  into 
one  spray  material. 

Weaker  sprays  are  necessary  on  plants  when  the  leaves 
are  on;  stronger  sprays  when  the  trees  are  dormant. 

Lime-sulfur  is  used  both  as  a  winter  spray  and  as  a  sum- 
mer spray,  but  the  strength  must  be  made  to  suit  the  con- 
dition of  the  trees  or  other  plants.  It  is  a  fungicide  and  also 
a  special  insecticide  for  the  control  of  scale  insects. 

Soluble  oils  are  for  winter  use  only  and  are  especially 
for  scale  insects. 

Bordeaux  mixture  alone  is  a  fungicide  and,  in  different 
strengths,  may  be  used  either  when  the  trees  are  dormant  or 
when  in  leaf. 

Paris  green  and  arsenate  of  lead  are  two  of  the  most 
common  insect  poison  materials.  They  may  be  used  in  com- 
bination with  lime-sulfur  and  also  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 
(See  spray  formulas  in  the  Appendix.) 

REVIEW. 

l.-What  are  the  three  main  causes  of  plant  diseases? 

2.  Name  two  fungous  diseases  of  the  apple. 

3.  Name  five  diseases  of  the  peach. 

4.  Describe  peach  yellows  and  tell  of  the  best  remedy. 

5.  Tell  how  to  prevent  apple  scab. 

6.  Tell  of  the  relation  of  cedar  apples  to  the  rust  disease  of  apples. 

7.  Give  four  causes  of  potato  scab  and  the  remedy  for  each. 

8.  Describe  the  treatment  of  seed  potatoes  to  prevent  the  planting 
of  scab  disease. 

9.  Describe  the  treatment  of  oats  to  prevent  smut  disease. 

10.  Give  the  objects  for  each  of  the  three  spring  sprayings  of  apple 
trees. 

11.  Give  the  material  to  use  at  each  time. 

12.  Give  all  the  principles  of  spraying  that  you  can. 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  219,  Lessons  from  the 
Grain  Rust  Epidemic  of  1904;  221,  Fungous  Diseases  of  the  Cranberry; 
243,  Fungicides  and  Their  Use  in  Preventing  Diseases  of  Fruits;  250, 
The  Prevention  of  Stinking  Smut  of  Wheat  and  Loose  Smut  of  Oats; 
283,  Spraying  for  Apple  Diseases  and  the  Codhng-Moth  in  the  Ozarks; 
345,  Some  Common  Disinfectants;  435,  P.  28,  Lime-Sulfur. 


PART  II. 
ANIMAL  PRODUCTION 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
IMPROVEMENT  OF  ANIMALS. 

In  man's  efforts  to  secure  for  his  use  the  best  types  of 
live  stock  or  farm  animals  he  has  produced  the  various  breeds 
of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry.  He  has  intelli- 
gently selected  those  animals  which  showed  a  tendency  to 
produce  the  desired  qualities.  The  correct  principles  of 
breeding  have  been  applied,  somewhat  as  an  art  and  some- 
times also  as  a  science.  It  is  important  that  we  have  animals 
suited  to  a  definite  purpose,  rather  than  for  several  or  all 
purposes.  Men  want  horses  for  draft  and  for  speed;  some 
cows  for  milk,  others  for  beef;  some  sheep  for  wool,  others 
for  mutton;  some  swine  for  bacon  and  lean  meat,  others  for 
lard;  some  hens  for  eggs,  others  for  meat. 

A  Breed. — ^A  group  of  animals  which  have  special  charac- 
teristics of  habit,  color,  and  form  is  called  a  breed.  They  have 
a  tendency  to  transmit  such  characteristics  without  much 
change  to  their  offspring.  The  best  breed  to  keep  is  always 
the  one  best  suited  to  the  desired  purpose.  There  are  so  many 
breeds  that  one  may  be    chosen   for  each  particular  need. 

Laws  of  Breeding. — There  are  several  laws  of  nature 
which  govern  in  a  large  measure  the  maintenance  of  good 
breeds  and  the  improvement  of  live  stock. 

The  law  of  heredity  is  one  of  these.  It  means  that  animals 
inherit  from  their  ancestors  certain  forms,  characteristics, 
qualities,  habits,  and  tendencies.  These  may  be  either  desir- 
able or  undesirable  and  are  frequently  both.  That  ^'like 
produces  hke"  is  as  true  with  animals  as  with  plants.    If 

237 


238  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

this  law  were  an  absolute  one,  man  would  find  it  impossible 
to  make  any  improvements  in  his  animals  by  careful  selection. 
Variation  among  farm  animals  is  a  natural  tendency  for 
them  to  differ  from  each  other  and  from  their  parents.  No 
two  calves  in  the  barn  are  alike.  The  pigs  in  a  litter  may  look 
alike  when  young,  but  the  attendant  can  soon  point  out 
differences.  This  tendency  to  vary  allows  stockmen  to  select 
the  desired  types  and  produce,  in  time,  the  animals  desired 
for  special  purposes. 

Exercise. — Variation  Among  Animals. — Let  pupils  tell 
of  variations  in  color  or  other  marked  characters  among 
pure-bred  stock  such  as  cattle,  poultry,  or  swine.  Care 
should  be  used  to  bring  out  the  law  of  variation. 

Reversion  is  the  tendency  for  young  animals  to  exhibit 
characters  of  distant  ancestors,  which  their  own  parents 
did  not  possess. 

Sometimes  there  are  characters  present  in  certain  indi- 
vidual animals  which  are  not  like  any  of  the  animals  of  the 
breed.  Such  cases  are  called  mutations  or  sports.  Such  very 
odd  or  different  characters  are  not  always  transmitted  by 
animals  to  their  offspring.  When  such  new  characters  are 
given  to  the  offspring  they  may  become  fixed  and  give  rise 
to  a  new  line  or  strain  of  animals  in  a  breed.  The  hornless 
or  polled  Shorthorn  cattle  and  the  polled  Hereford  cattle 
were  first  started  from  sports.  Now  the  hornless  character 
of  those  strains  has  become  fixed.  The  groups  may  even  be 
considered  as  distinct  breeds. 

Pure=Bred  Animals. — These  are  animals  which  have  been 
bred  along  a  certain  line  or  within  the  bounds  of  the  breed 
for  many  generations.  The  vulgar  term  full-blood  should 
not  be  used  to  express  purity  of  blood  in  an  animal.  The 
term  thoroughbred  is  also  incorrectly  used  in  this  connection. 
This  name  belongs  to  a  breed  of  race-horses  which  originated 
in  England. 

Grades  are  animals  which  are  not  pure  bred  but  are  part 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   ANIMALS  239 

native.  A  high  grade  animal  is  one  which  is  more  than  half 
pure  bred.  Native  stock  are  those  in  which  there  is  no  certain, 
traceable  blood  of  any  special  breed.  They  may  be  a  mixture 
of  several  breeds.     They  are  often  called  '*  Scrubs. '^ 

Cross-bred  animals  are  the  result  of  crossing  two  pure- 
bred animals  of  different  breeds,  as  a  Holstein— Jersey  cross 
in  cattle,  or  a  Plymouth  Rock-Cochin  cross  in  poultry. 

Pedigrees. — These  are  statements  of  the  lineage  or  ances- 
tors of  animals.  Records  are  kept  of  all  the  animals  of 
the  pure  breeds,  if  the  owners  care  to  register  them.  Owners 
of  stock  of  a  certain  breed  form  an  Association,  the  officers 
of  which  establish  herd  books  in  which  records  are  kept  of 
the  animals  and  their  offspring  owned  by  the  members. 
(See  the  sample  Holstein  pedigree  in  the  Appendix.) 

Exercise. — Stock  Pedigrees. — Some  pupils  in  the  school 
may  be  able  to  bring  to  the  teacher  a  written  or  printed 
pedigree  of  farm  animals  owned  by  some  one  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  value  of  such  a  complete  record  may  then  be 
made  clear  to  the  class,  because  of  its  local  apphcation. 

Bad  Effects  of  Crossing. — It  is  far  too  common  a  practice 
for  farmers  to  cross  the  stock  of  two  breeds.  Where  a  herd 
is  graded  up  toward  one  breed,  as  Jerseys,  they  are  then 
crossed  with  Holsteins  or  Shorthorns,  the  hope  being  to 
increase  the  quantity  of  milk.  The  result  is  usually  a  dis- 
appointment and  the  practice  is  a  bad  one.  When  there  are  so 
many  good  breeds  of  each  kind  of  farm  animals  it  is  unwise  to 
try  to  blend  them  by  doing  such  crossing.  Instead  of  a 
blending  effect,  the  stockman  often  gets  the  extreme  charac- 
teristics emphasized  by  close  contrast  in  one  individual. 
For  example,  the  head,  hairy  feet  and  legs,  and  large  hoofs  of 
the  Clydesdale  are  sometimes  found  on  the  slender  body  of 
a  race-horse.  The  more  extreme  the  crosses  or  the  greater 
the  difference  in  type  between  the  breeds  used  in  the  cross, 
the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  failures.  The  successful 
crosses  are  few.    Occasionally  the  bad  effects  of  a  cross  do 


240  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

not  show  until  the  second  generation.  Then  the  disappoint- 
ment of  the  owner  is  emphasized,  and  the  time  lost  in  his 
failure  is  greater. 

Keeping  Pure  Breeds. — ^All  stock  breeders  should  keep 
pure-bred  animals.  Each  breed  has  been  produced  because 
the  animals  are  the  best  for  some  particular  purpose.  The 
breeder  should  determine  what  his  purpose  is  and  then  choose 
the  proper  pure  breed  for  that  purpose.  The  animals  of  that 
breed  are  sure  to  be  more  satisfactory  than  any  cross  breeds 
or  grades.  Pure-bred  animals  have  fixed  characteristics 
and  may  be  expected  to  come  true  to  type.  The  superior 
qualities  of  the  parents  will  be  found  in  the  offspring.  The 
profit  derived  from  pure-bred  animals  is  usually  much  greater 
than  from  natives  or  from  grades. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  special  purpose  animals?    Give  examples. 

2.  How  have  these  been  developed  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  a  breed  ?    Which  is  always  the  best  one  ? 

4.  What  is  heredity  ?    What  is  variation  ? 

5.  What  benefits  arise  from  the  law  of  variation  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  reversion  ? 

7.  What  are  mutations  or  sports  ?  What  use  is  made  of  them  in 
forming  new  breeds  ? 

8.  Define  grades  and  natives. 

9.  What  is  a  pedigree  ? 

10.  Why  should  farmers  not  cross  the  pure  breeds  of  farm  animals  ? 

11.  Give  reasons  for  breeders  keeping  pure-bred  animals  instead 
of  native  stock,  or  scrubs. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
HORSES. 


There  were  horses  in  America  at  the  time  of  the  dis- 
covery by  Columbus.  All  horses  that  are  now  found  here 
are  imported  or  are  offspring  of  imported  stock.  Some  horses 
were  brought  by  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage,  others  were 
brought  by  Cortez,  by  DeSoto,  and  by  French,  Dutch,  and 
English  settlers.     The  wild  ponies  of  the.  Southwest,  called 


HORSES  241 

Texas  ponies,  are  probably  descendants  of  horses  abandoned 
by  DeSoto. 

Most  of  the  pure  breeds  of  horses  found  here  at  the 
present  time  have  originated  in  the  Old  World;  but  America 
has  established  a  distinct  breed  of  saddle  horses  and  trotters, 
and  a  carriage  breed  is  being  developed. 

Types  of  Horses. — There  are  several  types  of  horses: 
(1)  Those  for  heavy  work  are  called  the  draft  type.  (2)  Those 
of  light  build,  for  quick  action,  are  called  the  light  horse  type. 
(3)  There  are  many  that  would  not  fall  into  either  of  these 
two  extreme  types,  but  would  be  somewhat  intermediate 
between  them.  Such  horses  may  be  grouped  into  a  third 
type,  sometimes  called  dual-purpose  or  general-purpose 
horses.  The  descriptive  points  of  the  draft  horse  and  the 
light  horse  are  given  in  the  score  cards  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter. 

Pure  Breeds  of  Horses. — The  pure  breeds  of  horses  may 
be  grouped  as  follows:  draft  breeds,  coach  breeds,  light 
breeds,  and  pony  breeds.  The  market  types  of  horses, 
whether  they  be  pure-bred  or  not,  may  be  classified  as  draft, 
coach,  roadster,  saddle,  and  pony. 

The  draft  breeds  are  all  large,  heavy  horses,  ranging  in 
weight  from  thirteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  pounds. 
They  are  well  built  for  heavy  teaming.  The  leading  breeds 
of  the  draft  group  are  Clydesdale,  Percheron,  English  Shire, 
Suffolk  Punch,  and  Belgian. 

Coach  Horses. — The  heavy  carriage  or  coach  breeds 
include  the  large,  active,  stylish  coach  horses,  such  as  the 
Hackney,  German  and  French  coach,  the  Cleveland  Bay 
or  Yorkshire  coach. 

Light  horse  breeds  include  the  Thoroughbred,  the  Ameri- 
can trotting  horse,  and  the  American  saddle  horse 

Pony  breeds  are  the  Welsh,  the  Shetland,  and  Exmoor. 
These  differ  considerably  in  size,  habits,  and  other  special 
characters.  Besides  these  pony  breeds  there  are  several 
16 


242 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


pony  types  which  have  not  been  kept  pure  in  their  breeding. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  broncho  of  the  Western 
plains,  the  Indian  pony  of  the  Northwest,  and  the  Mexican 
or  Indian  mustang  of  the  Southwest. 

Percherons  (Fig.  152). — This  is  a  French  breed  of  draft 
horses,  identical  with  or  nearly  the  same  as  the  French  and 
the  Norman  draft  horses.    Percherons  are  gray  or  black  when 


Fig.  152. 


-Black   Percherons  in  harness.     Large,   gentle  draft  horses;   well 
suited  to  use  on  farms. 


young,  becoming  lighter  in  color  with  age.  The  dark  colors 
are  preferred,  and  are  more  common.  Dapple  grays  of  this 
breed  are  much  admired.  The  body  is  compact,  short,  and 
thick;  the  head  is  of  moderate  size;  the  legs  are  rather  short 
and  very  muscular,  with  short  hair.  The  feet  are  smaller 
than  in  the  Clydes.  Percherons  are  very  easily  managed  and 
become  very  gentle.  Little,  if  any,  ' 'breaking"  is  necessary. 
They  are  much  used  on  the  farms  of  the  middle  West  and 


HORSES  243 

Northwest.    Grades  of  this  breed  are  used  in  great  numbers 
in  city  dray  work  in  America. 

Clydesdales.— This  (Fig.  153)  heavy  draft  breed  dates 
back  to  its  origin  in  Scotland  two  hundred  years  ago.  The 
general  color  is  bay  or  brown,  but  sorrels  and  blacks  may  be 
found  among  the  Clydes.  Usually  there  are  some  white 
markings  on  the  legs  and  a  strip  of  white  in  the  face.    The 


Fio.  163. — Pure-bred  Clydesdale  mare.    Heavy  draft  type. 

form  of  the  body  is  long,  smooth,  and  symmetrical.  The 
height  is  often  sixteen  or  seventeen  hands.  (Four  inches  is 
called  a  hand  by  horsemen.)  The  thick,  stout  legs  are  heavily 
fringed  below  the  knees  and  hocks  with  long,  shaggy  hair. 
The  Clydes  are  well  suited  for  heavy  farm  work,  because 
of  their  strength,  rapid  walking  gait,  and  their  gentle  dis- 
position. 

English  Shires. — There  are  no  very  marked  differences 
between  the  Scotch  Clydesdale  and  the  English  Shire  horses. 


244 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


The  colors  and  markings  and  the  form  are  much  the  same 
in  the  two  breeds.  The  English  Shire  is  heavier,  more  com- 
pact and  the  legs  shorter.  They  are  not  so  common  in 
America  as  their  Scotch  ancestors. 

Suffolk  Punch. — This  is  another  EngHsh  breed  of  draft 
horses.  The  color  is  chestnut.  They  are  rotund  in  build 
and  are  seldom  so  large  and  heavy  as  the  Percherons.  The 
shoulders,  neck  and  legs  are  of  the  true  draft  type.  As  yet 
this  is  not  a  common  breed  in  America. 


Fig.  154. — Fancy  driving  team,  French  coach  breed.    (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


Belgian  Horse. — This  is  probably  the  heaviest  of  our 
draft  breeds.  The  body  is  more  blocky,  the  breast  wider, 
and  the  neck  thicker  than  in  either  the  Percherons  or  the 
Clydesdales.  The  color  is  roan,  brown  or  bay.  The  breed 
has  not  come  into  very  popular  use  in  America. 

Coach  Horses  Described. — ;The  Cleveland  Bay  is  the 
oldest  or  most  distinctive  breed  among  the  coach  horses. 
The  color  is  bay;  feet  and  legs  dark,  mane  and  tail  black. 
They  are  tall,  being  sixteen  to  seventeen  hands;  weight  1100 
to  1300  pounds. 

The  coach  or  cab  horses  used  in  cities  are  large,  active, 
and  stylish,  and  are  highly  valued  for  heavy  harness  duty 
and  for  general  driving.    They  are  required  to  haul  medium 


HORSES  245 

loads  and  to  travel  at  a  moderate  trot.  The  French  coach 
(Fig.  154),  the  German  coach,  and  the  Hackney  all  serve 
these  purposes  very  well.  The  German  coach  horses  are 
less  used  in  America  than  the  others,  probably  because  of 
their  greater  weight.  The  French  coach  is  bay,  chestnut  or 
black;  and  the  German  coach  brown,  bay  or  black. 


Fia.  155. — Champion  Hackney  stallion  "Oxford. 


The  Hackney  (Fig.  155)  is  used  to  grade  up  the  native 
horses  for  coach  purposes.  He  is  much  liked  because  of  his 
striking  and  pleasing  appearance  and  good  temper.  His  ac- 
tion is  very  good,  though  not  so  quick  as  the  trotter.  The  color 
is  brown,  chestnut,  roan  or  gray,  with  some  white  markings. 

Thoroughbred. — The  English  race  horse  or  Thoroughbred 
is  the  oldest  of  all  pure  breeds  of  horses,  being  a  descendant 
of  the  Arabian  stock  of  Asia.  The  American  Thoroughbred 
found  commonly  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  is  from  the 


246  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

English  breed.  This  breed  is  not  excelled  for  speed  and 
endurance.  No  other  horse  approaches  the  Thoroughbred 
in  beauty,  intelHgence,  and  courage  (Fig.  156). 

American  Trotter. — This  (Fig.  157)  is  just  becoming 
well  recognized  as  a  distinct  breed  of  light  horses.  They 
have  much  of  the  Thoroughbred  or  English  race  horse  blood 
in  them.  Their  special  characters  are  much  the  same.  The 
trotting  gait  has  been  more  highly  developed  in  the  new 
breed,  and  they  are  destined  to  become  the  most  popular 
light  carriage  horses  of  the  future  (Fig.  158). 

American  Saddle  Horse. — This  horse  (Fig.  159)  has  been 
called  the  Kentucky  saddle  horse.  The  South  had  much  to 
do  with  the  building  up  of  this  new  breed.  The  blood  in 
the  breed  traces  back  to  the  English  Thoroughbred  and 
the  Canadian  pacer.  The  best  animals  of  the  American 
saddle  horse  are  quick  in  action,  developing  some  speed 
if  desired,  and  showing  good  style.  They  also  have  a  variety 
of  gaits  suitable  to  the  pleasure  of  their  riders.  Besides 
the  walk,  trot,  and  canter  of  other  horses,  they  also  develop 
the  running-walk,  the  slow  pace,  the  fox  trot,  and  single-foot. 

The  Mule. — A  mule  is  a  cross  between  a  true  donkey  and 
a  horse.  The  donkey  is  a  native  of  Asia.  Mules  are  raised 
in  every  part  of  the  country,  but  particularly  in  the  South. 
They  are  of  several  types,  chiefly  differing  in  size.  Large 
mules  are  extensively  used  for  all  farm  purposes. 

In  the  large  mule  markets  of  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Kansas 
City,  Louisville,  and  New  Orleans  mules  are  classified  some- 
what according  to  height,  weight,  and  soundness.  Those 
sold  as  plantation  or  farm  mules  are  16  to  163^  hands  high; 
next  in  order  of  size  are  the  lumber  or  logging  mules,  railroad 
mules,  levee  or  dock  mules,  and  mine  mules.  The  common 
thought  regarding  mules  is  that  they  are  treacherous  and 
apt  to  kick;  this  is  not  true,  at  least  not  more  so  than  horses. 
They  are  usually  very  faithful  and  reliable.  They  are  quick 
in  movement  and  have  wonderful  endurance. 


HORSES 


247 


Fig.  156. — A  Thoroughbred,  "Oponsia,"  the  true  racing  type. 


Fig.  157.— American  trotter,  "George  G." 


248 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Fig.  158. — Pure-bred  Morgan.     The  Morgans  were  formerly  classed  as  a  family  of 
trotters;  now  they  are  bred  as  a  distinct  style. 


Fig.  159. — Champion  saddle  horse,  "Confidence.' 


HORSES  249 

Care  and  Management  of  Horses. — Much  skill  is  required 
to  care  for  horses  in  the  best  way.  The  appetite,  condition 
and  spirit  of  the  horse  must  be  watched.  Regularity  should 
be  exercised  in  the  matter  of  feed  and  water. 

The  horse  should  be  groomed  and  the  coat  kept  in  a 
healthy,  sleek  condition. 

Examine  the  shoulders  of  working  animals  and  protect 
them  against  any  suspected  soreness.  Such  parts  should 
be  bathed  with  water  and  the  cause  of  the  soreness  removed. 

Some  one  who  would  recognize  the  defects  should  exam- 
ine the  teeth  for  sharp  points  and  for  decaying  places. 
Swollen  gums  may  be  looked  for  if  a  horse  refuses  to  eat 
corn. 

The  feet  of  the  horse  should  be  carefully  examined, 
particularly  if  lameness  is  detected.  The  hoofs  should  be 
trimmed  when  overgrown.  The  shoes  should  be  regularly 
changed  and  always  suited  to  the  kind  of  work  to  be  per- 
formed. 

Plenty  of  exercise  must  always  be  given  to  horses.  The 
amount  of  grain  in  the  feed  should  be  reduced  when  the 
labor  is  lightened.  The  proper  balance  between  the  amount 
of  exercise  and  feed  should  be  maintained. 

The  farm  horse  at  light  work  may  be  given  6  to  10  pounds 
of  oats  and  7  to  10  pounds  of  hay  daily.  At  medium  work 
he  should  have  10  pounds  o^  oats  and  12  pounds  of  hay. 
When  doing  heavy  work  the  amount  should  be  increased 
to  12  or  13  pounds  of  oats  and  12  or  13  pounds  of  hay 
daily. 

Inspecting  Horses. — Horses  are  often  unsound  in  one  or 
more  respects.  They  must  not  be  considered  sound  if  they 
have  any  physical  defects  or  blemishes.  A  person  intending 
to  buy  should  always  examine  the  animal  thoroughly. 

Examining  in  Barn. — While  a  horse  is  in  his  stall  he  may 
show  some  of  his  acquired  vices.  Cribbing,  or  biting  the 
stall,  wind  sucking,  kicking  the  stall  and  persistent  pawing 


250  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

are  easily  detected.  Have  him  stand  over  to  the  other  side 
of  the  stall;  he  may  have  string-halt  and,  if  so,  may  be 
unable  to  lift  the  foot  on  the  affected  side.  Look  for  the 
halter-pulling  habit. 

Inspection  Out  of  Doors. — Out  in  the  yard,  examine 
every  part  of  the  head,  legs,  feet,  and  body  for  diseases  and 
defects.  Go  all  over  one  side  and  then  the  other,  being  care- 
ful to  overlook  nothing.  Look  for  colds  or  similar  troubles 
about  the  nose,  and  swellings  about  the  lower  jaw  and  throat 
Examine  the  mouth  for  bad  teeth.  The  mouth  may  show 
signs  of  a  harsh  bit.  The  eye  should  be  free  from  bad  dis- 
charges, and  must  be  sensitive  to  light.  Feel  the  top  of  the 
head  for  sores  or  swelling  or  any  unusual  tenderness  which 
would  make  him  hard  to  bridle.  The  withers  and  back  may 
show  scars  of  old  running  sores.  Look  for  signs  of  collar  boils 
on  the  shoulders.  Scars  on  the  knees  may  indicate  a  stum- 
bling habit.  Watch  closely  for  enlargements,  wind-puffs, 
or  other  defects  of  the  front  legs.  Feel  for  ring-bones, 
bunches  or  scars  near  the  hoofs  and  just  above  them. 
Feel  the  cartilages  at  the  back  of  the  hoof  on  both 
inner  and  outer  sides;  if  hard  they  are  called  side  hones, 
and  will  cause  lameness.  The  hoof  should  be  of  proper 
shape,  size  and  color,  free  from  cracks,  and  the  foot  not 
contracted  at  the  heel.  The  frog  in  the  center  of  the 
sole  should  be  elastic. 

The  hind  leg  and  foot  can  usually  be  examined  without 
danger  by  having  some  one  hold  up  the  front  foot  on  the 
same  side  of  the  body.  Look  for  signs  which  indicate  a  kick- 
ing habit.  The  hocks  are  important  and  the  two  should  be 
compared  in  detecting  curly  hocks,  soft  or  bog-spavin,  and 
bone-spavin.  Compare  the  right  and  left  legs  below  the 
hocks  in  looking  for  ring-bones,  scratches,  cracks  or  any 
defects  of  the  hoof  and  foot.  Walk,  trot,  and  gallop  the 
horse  and  watch  closely  to  detect  any  irregularity  in 
gait,  due  to  lameness  or  bad  habits.     Heaves   and  other 


HORSES  251 

difficult  breathing  may  be  noticed  when  the  horse  is 
exercised   vigorously. 

Exercise. — Unsoundness  in  Horses. — Let  pupils  examine 
a  horse  for  unsoundness.  If  a  horse  is  brought  to  the  school 
yard  by  some  one,  tho  class  may  assemble  about  the  horse 
after  studying  the  above  lesson  on  ''Inspecting  Horses" 
(Fig.  160). 

Exercise. — Height  and  Other  Measures. — ^With  an  ordi- 
nary tape  line,  measure  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the 


Fig.  160. — Small  buy-  f\;u:iiiiiu£;  a  hor.-e  for  unsoundue>.s 
(.Agricultural  EUucationJ 

top  of  the  withers  to  the  ground.  How  many  hands  high 
is  the  horse  ?  Compare  the  length  of  the  head,  from  tip  of 
nose  to  poll  or  crown,  with  the  length  of  back  from 
the  withers  to  the  hips.  Two  different  horses  may  be 
compared  as  to  width  of  hips,  width  of  breast,  girth, 
length  of  leg,  and  other  corresponding  parts  which  indicate 
symmetry. 

Exercise. — Age  of  Horses. — Let  some  pupils  put  on  the 
blackboard  the  diagrams  of  the  incisors  of  the  horse  to  show 


252 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


how  age  is  indicated  by  the  teeth.  Such  diagrams  may  be 
copied  from  a  cyclopedia  or  from  references  mentioned  in 
the  Appendix  of  this  book. 

Exercise. — Horse  Jiidging. — A  number  of  lessons  should 
be  given  in  the  judging  of  horses.    Light  and  heavy  types 


Fig.  161. — A  good  draft  type,  explaining  points.  P,  poll;  Cr,  crest;  W,  withers; 
L,  loin;  H,  hock;  Bl,  bone-spavin;  B2,  bog-spavin;  P,  pastern;  F,  fetlock;  C,  cannon; 
K,  knee;  Sp,  shoulder  ppint;  M,  muzzle. 


may  be  used  at  different  times.  Several  different  breeds 
may  be  studied  in  this  way.  The  following  score  cards  are 
to  be  used  for  this  purpose.  A  sheet  of  Hned  paper  may  be 
used  by  students  to  keep  scores  on — one  hne  being  used  for 
each  of  the  numbers  down  the  left  side.  Learn  the  names  of 
parts  from  Fig.  161. 


HORSES 


253 


STUDENT'S   SCORE  CARD  FOR   DRAFT  HORSES. 


Perfect      Student's 
Score.         Score. 


1.  Age 

General  Appearance. 

2.  Height 

3.  Weight,   over   1500  lbs. 

score  according  to  age 

4.  Form,  broad,  massive,  low  set,  proportioned .  . . 

5.  Quality,  bone  clean,  yet  indicating  sufficient 

substance;  tendons  distinct;  skin  and  hair 
fine 

6.  Temperament,  energetic,  good  disposition 

Head  and  Neck. 

7.  Head,  lean,  medium  size 

8.  Muzzle,  fine;  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  even 

9.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 

10.  Forehead,  broad,  full 

11.  Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried 

12.  Neck,  muscled;  crest  high;  throat  fine;  windpipe 

large 

FOREQUARTERS. 

13.  Shoulders,  sloping,  smooth,  snug,  extending 

into  back 

14.  Arm,  short,  thrown  forward 

15.  Forearm,  heavily  muscled,  long,  wide 

16.  Knees,  wide,  clean  cut,  straight,  deep,  strongly 

supported 

17.  Cannons,  short,  lean,  wide,  sinews  large,  set 

back 

18.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 

19.  Pasterns,  sloping,  lengthy,  strong 

20.  Feet,   large,   even  size,   straight;  hora  dense; 

dark  color;  sole  concave;  bars  strong;  frog 
large,  elastic;  heel  wide,  high,  one-half 
length  of  toe 

21.  Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from 

the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon 
the  center  of  the  knee,  pastern  and  foot .  .  . 

Body. 

22.  Chest,  deep,  wide,  low,  large  girth .   

23.  Ribs,  long,  close,  sprung 

24.  Back,  straight,  short,  broad 

25.  Loin,  wide,  short,  thick,  straight 

26.  Underline,  flank  low 


254  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

STUDENT'S  SCORE  CARD  FOR  DRAFT  HORSES.-Continued. 


Perfect 
Score. 

Student's 
Score. 

Hindquarters. 

27.  Hips,  smooth,  wide 

28.  Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular 

29.  Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 

2 
2 
1 
3 
2 
2 
8 
2 
1 
2 

6 

3 

6 
4 

100 

• 

30.  Thighs,  muscular 

31.  Quarters,  deep,  heavily  muscled 

32.  Gaskins  or  Lower  Thighs,  wide,  muscled .  .  . 

33.  Hocks,  clean  cut,  \7ide,  straight 

34.  Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews  large,  set  back. . . 

35.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 

36.  Pasterns,  sloping,  strong,  lengthy 

37.  Feet,  large,  even  size;  straight;  horn  dense,  dark 

color;  sole  concave;  bars  strong;  frog  large, 
elastic;  heel  wide,  high,  one-half  length  of 
toe 

38.  Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line 
from   the    central    point    of   each   quarter 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  all  the  joints 
and  foot. 

Action. 

39.  Walk,  smooth,  quick,  long,  balanced 

40.  Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular 

Total 

STUDENT'S  SCORE   CARD   FOR   LIGHT   HORSES. 


• 

Perfect 
Score. 

Student's 
Score. 

1.  Age 

4 

4 

4 

General  Appearance. 
2.  Weight 

3.  Height 

4.  Form,  symmetrical,  smooth,  styHsh 

5.  Quality,  bone  clean,  fine,  yet  indicating  suffi- 

cient substance;  tendons  defined;  hair  and 
skin  fine 

6.  Temperament,  active,  good  disposition 

HORSES  255 

STUDENT'S  SCORE  CARD  FOR  LIGHT  HORSES.-Continued. 


Perfect 
Score. 


Student' 
Score. 


Head  and  Neck. 

7.  Head,  lean,  straight 

8.  Muzzle,  fine;  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even.  .  . . 

9.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 

10.  Forehead,  broad,  full 

11.  Ears,  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  and 

not  far  apart 

12.  Neck,  muscled;  crest  high;  throat  fine;  wind- 

pipe large  

FOREQUARTERS. 

13.  Shoulders,  long,  smooth,  with  muscle  oblique, 

extending  into  back  and  muscled  at  withers  . 

14.  Arm,  short,  thrown  forward 

15.  Forearm,  muscled,  long,  wide 

16.  Knees,    clean,   wide,   straight,   deep,   strongly 

supported 

17.  Cannons,  short,  wide,  sinews  large,  set  back. . . 

18.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight 

19.  Pasterns,  strong,  angle  with  ground  45** 

20.  Feet,  medium,  even  size,  straight,  horn  dense; 

frog  large,  elastic,  bars  strong;  sole  concave; 
heel  wide,  high 

21.  Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from 

the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon 
the  center  of  the  knee,  pastern  and  foot 

Body. 

22.  Chest,  deep,  low,  large  girth 

23.  Ribs,  long,  sprung,  close 

24.  Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  muscled 

25.  Loin,  wide,  short,  thick 

26.  Underline,  long;  flank  rather  low 


Hindquarters. 

27.  Hips,  smooth,  wide,  level 

28.  Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular 

29.  Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 

30.  Thighs,  long,  muscular,  spread,  open  angles .  .  . 

31.  Quarters,  heavily  muscled,  deep 

32.  Gaskins  or  Lower  Thighs,  long,  wide,  mus- 

cular   

33.  Hocks,  clearly  defined;  wide,  straight 

34.  Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews  large,  set  back. . . 

35.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight 

36.  Pasterns,  strong,  sloping 


256  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

STUDENrS  SCORE  CARD  FOR  LIGHT  HORSES.-Continued. 


37.  Feet,  medium,  even  size;  straight;  horn  dense; 

frog  large,  elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave; 
heel  wide,  high 

38.  Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line 

from  the  central  point  of  each  quarter 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  all  the  joints 
and  foot 

Action. 

39.  Walk,  elastic,  quick,  balanced 

40.  Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high 

Total 


Student's 
Score. 


REVIEW. 

1.  Mention  the  market  classes  of  horses. 

2.  What  are  the  four  groups  of  pure  breeds  of  horses  ? 

3.  Name  five  draft  breeds. 

4.  Name  four  coach  breeds. 

5.  Name  three  hght  horse  breeds,  and  three  pony  breeds. 

6.  Tell  all  you  can  of  the  Percherons.  What  other  two  breeds 
are  nearly  like  them? 

7.  Describe  the  Clydes  and  English  Shires. 

8.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  Suffolk  Punch;  also  the  Belgian  Draft. 

9.  Describe  the  coach  horse  type. 

10.  Which  are  the  oldest  pure-bred  horses  ?    What  can  you  say  of 
them? 

11.  Give  the  origin  of  the  American  trotter,  and  American  saddle 
horse. 

12.  What  is  a  mule  ?    Where  are  they  chiefly  raised  ? 

13.  Why  should  a  buyer  examine  a  horse  for  soundness  ? 

14.  For  what  things  should  he  look  when  the  horse  is  in  the  stall  ? 

15.  What  defects  may  be  found  about  the  nose,  mouth,  eyes,  and 
head? 

16.  What  faults  may  be  looked  for  on  the  fore  and  hind  legs  and 
feet? 

17.  Give  five  characteristic  features  of  a  good  draft  horse. 

18.  Give  five  in  contrast  with  these  for  the  light  horse  type. 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  170,  Principles  of  Horse 
Feeding;  451,  Draft  Horses,  and  Care  of  Mares  and  Foals.  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  Bulletin  37,  Market  Classes  of  Horses;  Circular  137, 
The  Preservation  of  Our  Native  Types  of  Horses. 


CATTLE  257 


CHAPTER  XXni. 
CATTLE. 

The  improved  breeds  of  cattle  of  to-day  were  developed 
from  the  native  types  found  in  Western  Europe,  chiefly  in 
Great  Britain.  There  are  many  named  breeds,  but  only 
a  few  have  gained  a  prominent  place  among  stockmen.  The 
most  important  are  classified  as  (1)  beef  breeds,  (2)  dual- 
purpose  or  general-purpose  breeds,  (3)  dairy  breeds.  Grade 
animals  of  the  pure  breeds  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of 
pure  bred  males  of  the  breed  desired.  Good  high  grades 
always  give  better  results  than  scrubs  or  natives,  either  for 
milk  or  for  beef. 

Beef  Breeds. — These  are  raised  not  for  milk  but  for  meat. 
They  are  in  some  rare  cases  so  highly  specialized  that  the 
mothers,  though  well  fed,  fail  to  give  enough  milk  for  their 
calves.  None  of  the  beef  breeds  except  the  Shorthorn  gives 
milk  enough  to  be  considered  profitable  for  dairy  use. 

Beef  animals  should  have  deep,  plump,  compact  bodies, 
well  covered  with  flesh,  giving  them  a  blocky  appearance; 
the  back  is  broad;  the  legs  are  short,  straight,  and  well- 
placed;  all  quarters  are  quite  thick;  the  neck  is  short  and 
thick.    The  whole  appearance  is  that  of  meat-production. 

The  chief  distinctive  beef  breeds  are:  (1)  Shorthorn, 
including  Polled  Durham,  (2)  Hereford,  (3)  Aberdeen  Angus, 
and  (4)  Galloway. 

Shorthorns  originated  in  northeastern  England  and  were 
first  introduced  into  America  in  1783.  They  are  now  very 
popular  cattle.  In  their  general  type  most  of  the  families 
of  the  breed  conform  closely  to  the  beef  type  (Fig.  162); 
but  that  branch  known  as  the  Bates  family  of  Shorthorns 
are  so  much  incHned  toward  the  dairy  type  as  to  be  classed 
as  general-purpose  animals.  The  name  was  given  them 
17 


258  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

because  of  their  short  horns  in  contrast  with  the  long-horned 
cattle  of  England.  The  names  Durham,  Teeswater,  and 
Holderness  were  local  names  given  them  in  those  localities 
where  they  were  bred. 

The  Polled  Durhams  are  a  hornless  branch  or  family  of 
the  Shorthorn  breed;  the  term  "polled"  means  hornlesSo 
Their  hornless  character  is  their  only  difference  from  the 
Shorthorns.  Cows  of  the  breed  weigh  1400  pounds  or  more. 
The  colors  vary  much  more  than  in  any  of  the  other  breeds 
of  cattle.    The  prevailing  colors  are  red,  white,  and  roan. 


Fig.  162. — Beef  type  of  shorthorn,  white  and  roan.    (An.  I.) 

Herefords  (Fig.  163)  originated  in  Herefordshire,  Eng- 
land, and  were  first  brought  to  this  country  by  Henry  Clay 
in  1817.  The  breed  is  old  and  well  estabhshed.  In  color 
these  cattle  are  red  with  white  faces  and  some  white  markings 
along  the  back,  under  Hne  and  sometimes  on  the  feet  and 
tail.  The  Herefords  (pronounced  Her-fords)  are  shorter 
legged,  more  blocky  and  a  little  heavier  than  the  Shorthorns. 
They  are  well  suited  to  grazing  and  fatten  easily  on  the 
grassy  plains  of  the  West.  There  they  have  been  extensively 
mixed  with  the  native  cattle,  the  grade  Herefords  making 
good  beef  cattle. 

As  already  mentioned  in  another  chapter,  there  is  now 


CATTLE 


259 


a  branch  of  this  breed  without  horns,  the  Polled  Herefords. 
The  hornless  character  in  cattle  is  always  to  be  desired: 
there  is  then  no  necessity  for  dehorning.  Horned  cattle 
often  do  each  other,  or  their  keepers,  considerable  harm, 
in  the  feed-lot  or  cattle  car. 

Aberdeen  Angus  cattle  originated  chiefly  in  the  county 
of  Aberdeen  and  the  district  of  Angus,  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  Scotland.  Local  names  for  them  are  Polled  Angus 
and  ''Doddies,"  both  names  referring  to  their  natural  horn- 
less character.    They  are  black,  sleek,  short-legged,  plump 


Fig.  1G3. 


Fig.  164. 


Fig.  163. — A.  Hereford  cow,  of  the  lioavy  Ijeef  t\  pc  ;  CMhir  r 
Fig.  164. — Galloway  bull,  black,  hurale66  with  shai;gy  coat. 


Beef  type.     (Kans.) 


cattle,  a  little  smaller  than  the  Shorthorns.  Their  disposi- 
tion is  very  quiet  and  gentle,  and  they  fatten  easily,  either 
on  good  blue  grass  pastures,  or  in  close  feeding  quarters  of 
the  corn-belt.  The  beef  is  of  the  very  best  quality,  and  the 
fattened  animals  bring  the  highest  market  prices  (Fig.  165). 
Galloway  cattle  are  also  from  Scotland,  but  from  the 
rough  districts  of  the  southwestern  part  of  the  country.  Like 
the  Angus  cattle,  the  Galloway  is  black  and  hornless  and 
has  very  short  legs.  But  a  marked  difference  in  appearance 
is  due  to  the  shaggy  or  curly  hair  (Fig.  164).  The  hair  is  so 
long  and  curly  that  the  cured  skins  are  used  for  making  rugs, 
robes,  and  overcoats.    These  cattle  can  subsist  on  the  poorest 


260 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


roughage  or  pasture,  but  respond  rather  too  slowly  to  good 
feeding.  The  cuts  of  beef  of  the  Galloway  carcass  are  of  good 
quality  and  the  animals  sell  in  the  Chicago  markets  at  prices 
next  to  those  paid  for  Angus  cattle.  Galloway  cows  are 
very  light  milkers,  but  usually  supply  enough  to  raise  their 
own  calves. 


Fig.  165. — A  product  of  good  breeding.    Aberdeen  Angus  calf,  two  years  old, 
black,  weight  lb24  pounds.     Champion  of  the  baby-beef  type.     (Minn.) 


These  cattle  are  hardy  because  of  the  climate  from  which 
they  came.  Because  of  this  hardy  character  they  are  used 
in  the  Northwestern  States  where  the  winters  are  severe. 
Galloway  cows  have  been  crossed  with  the  American  buffalo, 
the  name  Catalo  being  given  to  the  hybrid  offspring.  No 
special  benefit  has  yet  been  derived  from  this  cross. 

Dual=Purpose  Breeds. — Cattle  of  these  breeds  serve  two 
purposes,  giving  milk  and  producing  meat,  but  do  each 
only  fairly  well.  They  may  properly  be  called  general-pur- 
pose animals.    The  type  of  body  is  not  so  lean  and  angular 


CATTLE  261 

as  in  the  true  dairy  breeds,  nor  so  blocky  and  heavy  as  in 
the  beef  type.  A  few  of  them  are  heavy  and  incline  a  Httle 
toward  the  production  of  beef  rather  than  milk,  and  others 
are  heavier  milkers  and  have  more  of  the  dairy  conformation; 
for  example,  the  Devons  and  also  the  Red  Polled  breeds 
have  both  types.  Dual-purpose  breeds  are  quite  popular 
with  general  farmers  because  they  are  fair  milkers  and  the 
male  calves  are  heavy  enough  to  be  sold  for  veal.  Special 
farmers  do  not  use  the  dual-purpose  breeds  very  much. 
They  want  the  best  beef  breeds  if  their  special  line  is  beef 
production;  or  special  dairy  breeds  are  kept  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk,  cream,  and  butter. 

The  leading  dual-purpose  breeds  in  America  are:  Devon, 
Red  Polled,  Brown  Swiss,  the  Bates  family  of  Shorthorns, 
and  usually  the  Polled  Durhams. 

Devon  Cattle. — These  originated  in  England  centuries 
ago,  and  were  brought  to  America  in  Colonial  times.  They 
are  red  with  an  occasional  marking  of  white  on  the  udder. 
The  horns  of  the  cow  are  long  and  slender  and  curved  upward. 
As  suggested  above  they  are  of  two  tjrpes.  The  plump,  trim 
animals  are  better  for  beef,  although  smaller  than  those  of 
the  dairy  type.  Those  of  the  beef  type  fatten  fairly  well  and 
the  meat  is  of  good  quality.  As  milk  producers,  Devon  cows 
rank  very  well,  the  milk  being  nearly  as  rich  as  Jersey  milk. 
These  cattle  are  usually  much  smaller  than  Shorthorns. 

Red  Polled— Thi^  (Fig.  166)  is  another  English  breed 
of  red  cattle.  They  are  always  polled,  are  larger  than  the 
Devons,  and  often  have  some  white  markings  on  the  under 
parts.  SoHd  red  is  most  conmion.  This  is  probably  the  best 
of  the  strictly  dual-purpose  breeds;  the  cows  when  dry  will 
fatten  easily,  and  the  steers  are  good  beef  animals.  The 
males  will  weigh  from  1800  to  2200  pounds  when  mature 
and  fat.  The  cows  give  a  good  flow  of  rich  milk,  but  have 
very  large  teats  and  badly  shaped  udders.  The  two  types 
of  cattle  found  in  this  breed  make  it  difficult  for  breeders  to 


262 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


always  secure  the  special  type  of  calves  which  they  prefer. 
Dairymen  keeping  this  breed  will  often  be  disappointed  by 
the  frequent  recurrence  of  the  beef  form. 

Brown  Swiss  cattle  have  been  bred  for  centuries  in  Swit- 
zerland. They  were  first  brought  to  this  country  in  1869, 
and  are  not  yet  given  wide  distribution.    The  color  is  dark 


Fig.  166. — Red-polled  cows,  one  of  the  dual-purpose  breeds.    (An.  I.) 


Fig,  107. — Brown  Swiss  cow,  of  the  dual-purpo^(  t_\  pe. 


mouse  to  light  brown,  with  more  or  less  of  gray  along 
the  back  hne  and  under  parts.  The  udder  is  usually  white. 
The  tongue  and  nose  are  dark  or  black,  the  hoofs  black,  the 
horns  white  at  the  base  and  dark  at  the  tip.  In  form  these 
cattle  are  more  blocky  than  the  Red  Polled  cattle  (Fig.  167). 
The  neck  and  head  are  large  and  heavy.  Brown  Swiss  cows 
yield  rather  large  quantities  of  milk.  It  is  not  very  rich  in 
butter  fat.    The  climate  and  surroundings  from  which  these 


CATTLE 


263 


cattle  come  make  them  well  suited  to  foraging  for  themselves, 
but  when  given  good  treatment  and  proper  feed  they  re- 
spond well. 

Dairy  Breeds. — There  are  several  special  dairy  breeds, 
the  chief  purpose  of  which  is  the  production  of  milk.  They 
are  little  suited  to  beef  production  (Fig.  168).  The  form  is 
lean  and  angular,  inclined  to  the  wedge  shape  as  viewed  from 
the  front,  side,  and  top.  The  full  description  of  the  dairy 
type  is  given  in  the  score  card  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 
(See  also  Figs.  169-171.) 


Fig.  168. 


Products  of  the  dairy.     One  Jersey  calf  at  the  left,  next  a  Guernsey, 
Ayrshire  in  the  middle,  and  two  Holsteins  on  the  right. 


The  chief  dairy  breeds  in  America  are:  (1)  The  Jerseys 
for  butter;  (2)  the  Guernseys  for  good  quality  of  cream; 

(3)  the  Holsteins,  or  Holstein-Friesians,  for  market  milk; 

(4)  the  Ayrshires  for  cheese,  home  milk  and  infant  feeding. 
Less  common  dairy  breeds  are:  The  Dutch  Belted  Cattle  of 
Holland,  black  with  wide  white  belts;  and  the  French  Cana- 
dian of  the  province  of  Quebec,  resembling  black  Jerseys. 

The  Jersey  breed  originated  on  a  small  island  by  that 
name  in  the  channel  group  of  islands  in  the  English  Channel. 
No  cattle  can  be  taken  to  that  island  except  for  slaughter 
within  twenty-four  hours,  because  of  laws  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  the  breed  pure.  This  is  the  most  popular 
of  the  dairy  breeds  in  America  because  of  the  richness  of 


264  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

the  milk.  The  cows  are  famous  for  the  large  quantities  of 
butter  which  they  produce,  many  of  them  yielding  from 
fourteen  to  seventeen  pounds  of  butter  in  a  week.  ^'Loretta 
D,"  shown  in  Fig.  169,  produced  330  pounds  of  butter  in 
120  days.  The  Jersey  is  smaller  than  any  of  the  other  dairy 
breeds  used  in  this  country.  The  general  color  is  squirrel 
gray  and  fawn  color.  White  markings  sometimes  appear, 
and  considerable  grayish  shading  is  seen  about  the  mouth  and 
eyes.  The  nose  is  usually  black  or  dark  colored.  The  tongue 
and  switch  may  be  either  black  or  white. 

Guernseys  also  have  for  their  native  home  one  of  the  small 
islands  in  the  English  Channel.  They  were  first  brought  to 
America  in  1818.  The  cattle  are  much  Hke  the  Jerseys  in 
their  milk  and  butter  yields.  The  cream  is  much  smoother 
than  that  of  the  Jerseys,  as  the  fat  particles  are  not  so  coarse. 
The  cream  and  butter  of  the  Guernsey  are  well  supplied  with 
their  own  natural  coloring  matter.  The  cows  are  a  little  larger 
than  Jerseys  and  more  rugged  in  appearance  (Fig.  170). 
The  general  colors  are  red-and-white  or  fawn-and-white. 
The  nose  should  be  flesh-colored,  never  black.  The  popu- 
larity of  the  breed  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  even  the  grades 
command  a  high  price  in  the  butter-making  sections. 

The  Holstein-Friesians  are  usually  called  merely  Hol- 
steins  (Hol-stines) .  The  longer  name  is  derived  from  the 
names  of  two  provinces  in  Holland,  the  native  home  of  the 
breed,  where  it  has  been  kept  pure  for  many  centuries.  They 
are  much  larger  than  the  Jerseys  and  are  black-and-white 
in  color  (Fig.  171).  They  are  the  heaviest  milk  producers 
of  all  the  cattle.  The  milk  is  of  fair  quality  but  not  rich  in 
fat.  One  of  the  best  records  for  milk  and  butter  produced 
by  a  Holstein  cow  was  made  by  ''Colantha  4th's  Johanna,'' 
27,432  pounds  of  milk  and  1164  pounds  of  butter  in  one  year. 
Among  dairymen  who  sell  milk  in  the  markets  of  the  large 
cities  this  breed  is  very  popular.  In  cheese-making  dis- 
tricts of  Wisconsin  and  elsewhere  this  breed  is  much  used. 
The  fat  particles  are  very  fine  and  hence  the  cream  does 


CATTLE 


265 


Pio.  169. — Jersey  cow,  "Tx)retta  D."    She  has  won  prizes  as  the  champion  co^ 
of  the  world  in  producing  milk  and  butter.     (Animal  Industry.) 


Fig.  170. — Pure-bred  Guernsey  cow,  an  ideal  dairy  type.    (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


266 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Fig.  171. — Grade  Holstein  cow.     Notice  the  udder  and  milk-vein  showing  undei 
the  body.    (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


Fig.  172. — Pure-bred  Ayrshire  cow.     (Experiment  Station,  N.  J.) 


CATTLE 


267 


m 


not  rise  quickly.    This  makes  it  suitable  milk  to  use 
the  ordinary  city  delivery. 

Ayrshire  cattle  are  natives  of  the  county  of  Ayr  in  Scot- 
land.   They  are  smaller  than  the  Holsteins  but  much  larger 


Rg.  173. — School-boys  and  young  farmers  studying  a  Hereford. 
(Agricultural  Education.; 


Fig.  174. — Points  of  cattle  shown  on  a  ijiuwa  Swiss  bull.  M,  muzzle;  D,  dewlap; 
B,  barrel;  L,  loin;  HP,  hip  or  hook;  K,  rump;  P,  pin  bone;  T,  thigh;  H,  hock; 
S,  switch. 

than  the  Jerseys.  In  form  the  Ayrshires  are  somewhat  plump 
and  less  angular  than  any  of  the  other  dairy  breeds  (Fig.  172). 
The  calves  are  very  good  for  veal.  The  milk-producing 
properties  of  Ayrshires  are  very  much  like  the  Holsteins, 
the  yields  being  large  and  the  milk  not  so  rich  in  fat  as  the 
Jerseys.    The  milk  has  much  total  solid  matter  in  it,  thus 


268  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

making  its  food  value  very  high.  It  is  valuable  for  cheese 
making.  The  colors  among  Ayrshires  are  red,  brown  and 
white,  these  colors  often  being  mixed.  The  breed  is  much 
more  common  in  Quebec,  Ontario,  New  England,  and  New 
York  than  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

ExEECiSE. — Breeds  of  Cattle. — The  breeds  of  cattle  that 
are  most  used  in  any  section  are  the  ones  that  should  be 
studied  most.  The  class  may  be  taken  to  near-by  places 
for  this  purpose,  or  the  animals  may  be  brought  to  sheds 
or  barns  nearer  by  for  the  purpose  of  class  study  (Fig.  173), 

Exercise. — Beef  and  Dairy  Types. — It  is  important 
that  students  learn  well  the  beef  and  the  dairy  type.  The 
animals  to  be  used  for  this  purpose  need  not  be  pure  in  breed. 
Type  specimens  may  usually  be  found  without  difficulty  and 
should  be  brought  to  the  school,  or  the  class  may  go  where 
the  animals  are  found.  The  following  score  cards  should 
be  studied  and  used  in  the  judging  exercise.  The  names  of 
the  parts  are  shown  in  Fig.  174. 

REVIEW. 

1.  For  what  two  purposes  are  cattle  raised?  What  three  classes 
of  breeds  are  used  for  these  purposes  ? 

2.  Describe  the  beef  form  of  animals. 

3.  Name  four  beef  breeds  and  tell  what  country  each  is  from. 

4.  Give  the  chief  colors  of  each  of  the  four  beef  breeds.  Which 
are  hornless  ? 

5.  Name  them  in  order  of  their  relative  size. 

6.  Which  one  is  used  most  on  the  Western  grass  plains  ?  Why  ? 

7.  Which  is  the  most  hardy  and  cold-loving  ? 

8.  Give  some  reasons  for  raising  dual-purpose  breeds. 

9.  Why  should  special  farmers  not  raise  them  ? 

10.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  Devon  cattle. 

11.  Describe  the  Red  Polled  breed  and  tell  its  advantages. 

12.  Compare  the  Brown  Swiss  with  the  other  dual-purpose  breeds. 

13.  Describe  the  dairy  type  of  animal. 

14.  Name  four  dairy  breeds  and  give  the  special  use  of  the  product 
from  each. 

15.  Give  the  origin  of  each  of  the  four  dairy  breeds. 

16.  Name  them  in  order  from  the  largest  to  smallest. 

17.  Give  the  colors  of  each. 

References.— U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  55,  The  Dairy  Herd;  106, 
Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle;  152,  Scabies  of  Cattle;  206,  Milk  Fever  and  Its 
Treatment;  280,  A  Profitable  Tenant  Dairy  Farm;  349,  The  Dairy 
Industry  in  the  South;  350,  The  Dehorning  of  Cattle;  351,  The  Tuber- 
culin Test  of  Cattle  for  Tuberculosis;  439,  Anthrax. 


CATTLE 
STUDENrS  SCORE  CARD— DAIRY   COW. 


Perfect 
Score, 

Student's 
Score. 

1. 

2. 

General  Appearance. 
Weight,   estimated lbs 

actual .lbs 

Form,  wedge  shaped  as  viewed  from  front,  side 

and  top 

5 

8 
8 

2 

2 
2 
2 
2 

1 
2 
1 

1 

8 
5 
3 
2 
1 

15 

15 
4 
6 

100 

3. 

Quality,   hair  fine,   soft;   skin   mellow,   loose, 
medium  thickness,  secretion  yellow;  bone 
clean 

4. 

Constitution,  vigorous,  not  incUned  to  beefi- 
ness 

5. 
6 

Head  and  Neck. 
Muzzle,  clean  cut;  mouth  large;  nostrils  large.. 
Eyes,  large,  bright                           

7 

Face,  long,  lean,  quiet  expression 

8 

Forehead,  broad,  slightly  dished 

9. 
10. 

Ears,  medium  size;  yellow  inside,  fine  texture. . 

Neck,  fine,  medium  length;  throat  clean;  light 

dewlap 

11. 
1? 

Fore  and  Hind  Quarters. 

Withers,  lean,  thin 

Shoulders,  light,  obUque                 

18 

Hips,  far  apart ;  level  between  hooks 

14. 
15. 
16. 
17 

Rump,  long,  wide 

Pin-Bones  or  Thurls,  high,  wide  apart 

Thighs,  thin,  long 

Legs,  straight,  short ;  shank  fine 

18 

Tail,  long,  slim;  fine  switch 

IP 

Body. 

Chest,  deep,  low;  girth  large 

20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 

24. 

Ribs,  broad,  well  sprung,  long,  wide  apart 

Back,  lean,  straight 

Loin,  broad,  level 

Flank,  moderately  low 

Milk-Secreting  Organs. 
Udder,  long,   attached  high  and  full  behind, 
extending  far  in  front  and  full;  quarters 
even 

25. 

Udder,   capacious,  flexible,  with  loose  pliable 

skin  covered  with  short  fine  hair 

Teats,  large,  evenly  placed 

27. 

Milk  Veins,  large,  tortuous,  large  milk  wells. . 
Total 

270  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

STUDENT'S  SCORE  CARD— BEEF  CATTLE. 


Perfect 
Score, 

Student's 
Score; 

1. 

2. 
3. 

General  Appearance. 
Weight,  estimated lbs 

according  to  age 

Form,  straight  top-line  and  under-line;  deep, 

broad,  low,  set  stylish 

Quality,  firm  handling:  hair  fine;  pliahle  skin; 

dense  bone;  evenly  fleshed 

6 

10 

8 
5 

2 

3 

4 
2 

1 

3 

8 
8 
8 
6 
4 

4 

5 
3 
3 
2 

100 

4. 

5. 
6. 

7. 
8. 
q 

Temperament,  quiet 

Head  and  Neck. 
Muzzle,  mouth  large;  lips  thin;  nostrils  large.  . 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 

Face,  short;  quiet  expression 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture 

10 

Neck  thick,  short;  throat  clean 

11. 
12. 

Forequarters. 

Shoulder  Vein,  full 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top; 
snue                              

Ir^, 

Brisket,  advanced,  breast  wide 

14. 
15. 

16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping 

Legs,    straight,    short;    arm   full;    shank   fine, 
smooth 

Body. 
Chest,  full,  deep,  wide;  girth  large;  crops  full. . 

Ribs,  long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed 

Back,  broad,  straight 

Loin,  thick,  broad 

Flank  full,  even  with  under-line 

21. 

Hindquarters. 
Hips,  smoothly  covered;  distance  apart  in  pro- 
portion with  other  parts 

22. 
23 

Rump,  long,  even,  wide,  tail  head  smooth,  not 

patchy   

Pin-Bones  not  prominent,  far  apart 

24. 
25. 

Thighs,  full,  deep,  wide 

Legs,  straight,  short,  shank  fine,  smooth 

Total 

SHEEP  271 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
SHEEP. 

Sheep  have  two  main  uses,  the  production  of  mutton 
and  the  production  of  wool.  In  ancient  times  shepherds 
also  kept  them  for  their  milk.  For  these  two  present  pur- 
poses there  are  now  a  nimiber  of  breeds  of  sheep. 

Types. — Those  which  produce  the  most  and  best  mutton 
are  blocky  in  form  and  correspond  closely  in  outUne  to  the 
beef  type  in  cattle.  Sheep  that  naturally  have  a  lean,  angu- 
lar frame,  like  a  good  dairy  type  of  cow,  are  of  the  type  best 
suited  for  wool  production. 

Breeds  Classified. — Many  of  the  common  breeds  of 
sheep  are  used  both  for  wool  and  mutton.  They  are,  there- 
fore, usually  grouped  according  to  the  length  or  fineness  of 
wool,  as:  fine  or  short  wooled;  mediitm  wooled;  and  coarse 
or  long  wooled.  The  medium  and  the  coarse  wooled  sheep 
comprise  the  mutton  breeds. 

Coarse  Wooled  Breeds. — The  coarse  or  long-wooled 
sheep  include  the  Leicester  (Les-ter),  Lincoln,  and  Cotswold. 
They  all  originated  in  England. 

The  Cotswolds  (Fig.  175)  are  much  more  common  in 
America  than  the  others  of  the  coarse  wooled  group.  They 
are  larger  than  most  other  sheep,  the  males  attaining  a 
weight  of  250  pounds  or  more.  The  meat  from  the  lambs 
is  of  fair  quality.  They  have  no  horns;  the  face  is  always 
white.  The  locks  of  crimpy  wool  are  often  twelve  inches  in 
length.  The  fleece  or  annual  shearing  from  a  Cotswold  will 
average  ten  pounds  of  rather  coarse  wool  with  long  staple 
or  fiber. 

The  Leicester s  are  of  much  the  same  type  as  the  Cotswold; 
but  the  head  is  without  wool,  the  fleece  is  not  in  curly  locks, 


272  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

and   the  frame  is  not  so  large.    They  are  also  hornless. 

The  Lincolns  exceed  the  Cotswolds  in  size,  the  males 
sometimes  weighing  350  or  400  pounds  (Fig.  176).  They  are 
hornless,  have  white  faces  with  a  little  wool  on  the  head. 
The  fleece  of  the  body  hangs  in  cm-ly  locks,  and  the  staple 
is  longer  than  in  any  other  breed;  they  shear  about  fifteen 
pounds  to  a  fleece. 

Medium  Wooled  Sheep. — This  group  is  much  more 
popular  than  either  of  the  others  because  of  their  general- 
purpose  character,  and  their  lambs  mature  sooner  than  those 

Fia.  176.  FiQ.  176, 


Fig.  175. — Cotswold  ewe,  one  of  the  longer  or  coarse-wooled  breeds. 
Fig.  176. — Lincoln  ewe,  a  coarse-wooled  type. 

of  the  larger  breeds.  The  most  common  breeds  of  this  type 
in  America  would  be  named  in  about  the  foUowing  order: 
Shropshire,  Southdown,  Hampshire,  Oxford,  Cheviot,  and 
Dorset.  These  are  all  natives  of  England,  and  are  hornless 
except  the  last  or  occasionally  the  Cheviot  males.  They 
have  brown  or  black  faces,  ears,  and  legs,  except  the  Dorsets 
and  Cheviots,  which  have  white  markings.  All  of  these  breeds 
have  wool  on  the  faces  except  the  Cheviots,  which  are  wooled 
only  to  the  ears.  Shropshires,  Southdowns,  and  Cheviots 
increase  in  numbers  rapidly,  as  twin  lambs  are  very  common. 
The  Southdowns  (Fig.  177)  are  the  smallest  breed  named 
in  this  group.    The  Shropshires,  Cheviots,  and  Dorsets  come 


SHEEP 


273 


next  in  size  and  weight.  The  Hampshires  have  larger  frames 
and  are  a  httle  heavier,  but  the  Oxfords  stand  at  the  head 
of  the  list  in  size  and  weight  (Fig.  178). 

Fig.  177.  Fig.  178. 

-1 


wouleu  oreeu.s. 

Fig.  178.— Oxford  ran 


Southdown  ewe,  one  of  the  most  i>opular  of  the  medium 

ir>f  ]i:i\c  ihr  Iunii;f-i   w(;()l  of   the  medium  breeds. 


Fig.  179. — Prize-winning  Shropshire  wetner  one  year  old. 
(Experiment  Station,  Wis.) 

The  fleeces  of  the  Shropshire  (Fig.  179),  Oxford,  and  Dor- 
set are  all  of  good  weight  and  the  wool  of  excellent  quality. 
These  three  and  the  Cheviots  produce  very  good  mutton, 
but  the  Southdown  meat  is  popularly  considered  the  best, 
18 


274  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Cheviot  sheep  are  the  best  grazers,  having  been  well 
trained  to  this  in  their  native  land — the  Cheviot  hills,  be- 
tween England  and  Scotland. 


Fig.  180. — Dorset  sheep  making  mutton  on  pasture,  a  homed  breed  of  the  medium 
wool  type.     (From  Cornell  Countryman.) 


Fig.  181. — Dorset  ewes  and  their  winter  lambs.    This  is  a  good  breed  for  the 
production  of  winter  or  "hot-house"  lambs. 

The  Dorset  breed  (Figs.  180,  181)  is  much  used  for  the 
production  of  early  or  winter  lambs  for  the  city  markets. 
The  "hot-house"  lamb  industry,  as  this  is  called,  is  a  rather 
new  and  special  line  of  the  sheep  industry  in  America. 

Fine  Wooled  Sheep. — This  is  the  Merino  group.  Their 
wool  is  very  fine  in  quality  and  the  fleeces  much  heavier 


SHEEP 


275 


than  in  the  other  breeds.  There  is  an  oil  secreted  by  the 
skin  which  makes  the  wool  very  oily;  this  is  called  the  yolk. 
The  oil  catches  much  dust,  which  always  gives  the  sheep  a 
dirty  appearance.  The  sheep  are  quite  small  in  size  and  lack 
the  plump  form  found  in  the  mutton  breeds.  The  mutton 
is  not  of  good  quality,  and  none  but  the  largest  are  used  for 
this  purpose. 

There  are  three  breeds  of  Merinos  found  in  America. 
They  are  all  descendants  of  the  original  Spanish  blood.    These 


Fig  182. 


Fig. 183. 


Mf'rino  rain,  "Perfection."    Not<'  the  wrinkle?  all  over  him 
Fig.  183. — Rambouillet  or  French  Merino  of  the  fine  wooled  type. 


are  (1)  American  Merino;  (2)  Rambouillet  (Ram-boo-ya') 
or  French  Merino;  (3)  Delaine  Merino.  The  males  have 
spiral  horns  and  the  females  are  without  horns. 

In  all  of  these  the  fine  wool  covers  the  body  and  legs  down 
to  the  feet;  but  the  nose  and  ears  are  usually  free  from  wool. 
The  American  Merino  (Fig.  182)  is  the  smallest  and  has  deep 
wrinkles  or  folds  all  over  the  body  except  on  the  back.  The 
Delaine  is  less  wrinkled  and  is  somewhat  larger.  The  Ram- 
bouillet (Fig.  183)  is  much  the  largest  of  the  group,  with 
no  folds  at  all  except  sometimes  on  the  neck  and  breast. 

The  Merinos  are  all  hardy  and  good  grazers.  Their 
grades  are  used  for  grazing  in  large  flocks  on  the  Western 
plains. 


276  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Care  of  Sheep. — Sheep  naturally  live  in  mountainous 
and  hilly  regions,  where  they  get  their  living  by  feeding 
on  grasses  and  native  plants  of  all  kinds.  There  is  now 
greater  profit  from  the  raising  of  sheep  in  those  sections 
where  the  country  is  too  rough  for  the  raising  of  cultivated 
crops.  Sheep  make  good  use  of  the  land  that  would  other- 
wise be  wasted.  This  is  true  to  a  greater  degree  with  sheep 
and  Angora  goats  than  with  any  other  domestic  animals. 
Sheep  are  naturally  kept  in  flocks,  the  Merinos  in  very  large 
flocks  and  the  mutton  breeds  in  smaller  numbers.  The 
handhng  of  very  large  numbers  of  any  breed  in  a  single 
flock  requires  considerable  experience.  It  is  better  to  begin 
with  small  flocks. 

Winter  quarters  for  sheep  should  not  be  very  warm. 
The  animals  have  their  own  coats  and  will  suffer  if  housed 
too  closely.  It  is  highly  important  that  they  be  kept  per- 
fectly dry  in  every  respect.  Protected  shelter  from  rain 
and  snow  to  keep  the  coats  dry,  and  good  drainage  in  the 
sheds  and  lots  to  keep  the  feet  dry,  are  essential  to  success. 

During  the  winter  the  flocks  should  be  divided  so  that 
all  will  have  equal  opportunity  at  the  feed  trough  and  racks. 
Not  over  twenty-five  or  fifty  in  a  single  flock  should  be  the 
rule.  When  the  numbers  are  large  they  may  be  sorted  into 
such  groups  as:  first,  wether  lambs;  second,  ewe  lambs; 
third,  shearling  ewes;  and  fourth,  breeding  ewes. 

The  winter  feed  for  sheep  should  include  plenty  of  rough- 
age, such  as  clover  hay,  cut  corn  fodder,  and  oat  straw.  They 
are  very  fond  of  root  crops,  and  plenty  of  sugar  beets, 
mangles,  or  turnips  should  be  provided. 

Great  care  and  constant  attention  are  required  by  the 
shepherd  when  lambing  time  comes.  New-born  lambs  must 
not  become  chilled.  Some  ewes  fail  to  own  their  lambs 
and  must  be  held  for  the  young  to  draw  the  milk.  These 
and  many  other  points  require  the  immediate  attention  of 
a  good  shepherd. 


SHEEP 


277 


Exercise. — Samples  of  Wool. — Typical  samples  of  wool 
may  be  brought  by  pupils  or  obtained  from  noted  breeders 
through  the  mail.  These  should  be  fastened  with  thread 
to  cards  and  labelled  with  the  name  of  the  breed.  Let 
students  point  out  the  difference  in  wool  while  studying 
the  breeds  of  sheep. 


Fig.  184. — A  lesson  in  judging  sheep.     (U.  S.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.) 


Exercise. — Breeds  of  Sheep. — Pupils  should  be  given 
an  opportunity  to  become  familiar  with  all  the  breeds  or 
the  types  of  sheep  kept  in  the  section  where  the  school  is 
located.  Typical  specimens  may  be  brought  to  the  school; 
or  the  students  may  go  where  the  sheep  are  kept  (Fig.  184). 
Score  cards  for  fine  wooled  sheep  and  for  mutton  sheep  may 
be  used  in  judging  such  sheep.  Write  to  the  Agricultural 
College  of  your  State  for  such  score  cards.  (See  address 
in  the  Appendix.) 


278  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

REVIEW 

1.  What  are  the  two  main  uses  for  sheep  ? 

2.  What  are  the  three  classes  of  sheep?  Which  two  of  these  are 
used  for  mutton  ? 

3.  Describe  the  Cotswolds. 

4.  Compare  the  Leicesters  and  Lincolns  with  these  in  every  way 
that  you  can. 

5.  Name  five  breeds  of  the  medium  wooled  sheep. 

6.  Give  the  chief  differences  between  these  five  breeds. 

7.  Which  breed  is  used  for  the  winter  lamb  industry  ? 

8.  Describe  the  Merino  breeds  and  tell  their  differences. 

9.  For  what  kinds  of  places  are  sheep  best  suited  ? 

10.  Describe  best  winter  quarters  for  sheep. 

11.  Why  should  the  flock  be  separated  into  small  numbers  in  winter  ? 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins: 49,  Sheep  Feeding;  96,  Raising 
Sheep  for  Mutton;  119,  A  Flock  of  Mutton  Sheep,  pp.  23-24;  330,  Deer 
Farming  in  the  United  States;  457,  Early  Spring  Lambs,  p.  20. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
SWINE. 


Wild  hogs  of  different  kinds  are  found  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  some  parts  of  North  and  South  America.  It  is  from  the 
wild  forms  of  the  Old  World  that  the  improved  breeds  of 
swine  have  been  developed.  The  changes  wrought  have 
been  truly  wonderful.  The  time  required  for  the  pig  to 
mature  has  been  reduced  more  than  one-half.  The  tendency 
to  become  very  fat,  which  is  so  well  marked  in  some  breeds, 
is  not  found  in  wild  hogs.  Domestic  pigs  are  usually  slow 
and  quiet,  not  wild  and  ferocious. 

To  obtain  the  best  results  in  swine  management,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  pure  bred  or  high  grade  swine.  They 
fatten  easier,  mature  at  an  earlier  age,  and  are  larger  than 
the  scrubs.  In  the  United  States  more  swine  are  raised  than 
any  other  class  of  live  stock  except  cattle.  Their  value  to 
the  farmers  is  estimated  at  nearly  one-half  billion  dollars. 

Types  of  Swine. — There  are  a  number  of  breeds  of  swine, 
but  only  a  few  have  become  very  popular  in  America.    They 


SWINE  279 

are  classified  as:  first,  lard  or  fat  type;  and  second,  the  bacon 
or  lean  type.  The  form  of  the  body  in  the  fat  type  is  com- 
pact, deep,  broad,  and  low,  with  short  back  and  deep,  fat 
sides;  the  neck  is  short  and  thick;  head  small;  hams  and 
shoulders  large.  The  bacon  type  has  long  legs,  long  neck, 
coarse  head,  narrow  back,  long  and  deep  sides,  in  many 
respects  the  very  opposite  of  the  fat  type.  Bacon  swine  are 
kept  for  their  fine  lean  cuts  of  bacon.  The  demand  for  this 
type  is  not  so  great  in  America  as  in  Europe. 


Fig.  185. — The  lard  type,  a  Poland  China  sow.     Color,  black  with  white  markings. 

Breeds  of  the  Fat  Type. — The  most  popular  breeds  of 
swine  in  America,  of  the  fat  type,  are  Poland  China,  Berkshire, 
Chester  White,  and  Duroc-Jersey.  Others  of  less  prominence 
are  Cheshire,  Victoria,  Small  Yorkshire,  Essex,  and  Suffolk. 

America  has  produced  very  few  new  breeds  of  horses, 
cattle  or  sheep,  but  a  number  of  good  breeds  of  swine  have 
been  developed  here.  Swine  from  Europe  are  not  so  well 
suited  to  the  use  of  American  field  corn  as  to  the  grains  of 
their  own  country.  Many  of  the  English  breeds  are  of  the 
bacon  type  and  will  not  thrive  on  corn.  The  Berkshire  is  the 
only  very  popular  English  breed  in  this  country.  The  Poland 
China  originated  in  Ohio,  the  Chester  White  in  Chester 
County,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Duroc-Jersey  in  New  Jersey, 


280  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

The  Poland  China  (Fig.  185)  and  the  Berkshire  are  both 
black,  with  some  white  markings  on  the  face,  legs  or  other 
parts.  The  Chester  White  and  the  strain  called  Ohio  Im- 
proved Chester  (O.  I.  C.)  are  white  in  color.  The  Duroc- 
Jersey  is  red  or  some  modification  of  that  color.  These  are 
all  large  in  size  and  the  pigs  mature  early.  The  Berkshire 
has  erect  ears  and  a  dished  face;  in  the  others  the  ears  are 
drooping.  The  Duroc-Jersey  is  liked  throughout  the  country 
because  of  the  large  fitters  of  pigs.  The  Poland  China  is 
criticised  because  of  the  small  number  of  pigs  in  a  litter. 


Fig.  186. — A  Tamworth  sow,  red,  representing  the  bacon  tj^pe. 

The  white  swine  are  not  much  used  in  the  South  and  South- 
west because  of  the  greater  danger  of  skin  diseases  in  hot, 
sunny  climates. 

Breeds  of  the  Bacon  Type. — The  Large  Yorkshire  (Fig. 
187),  Tamworth  (Fig.  186),  and  Hampshire  are  the  leading 
breeds  of  the  bacon  type  of  swine.  The  last  mentioned 
originated  in  Kentucky  and  the  others  in  England.  The 
Large  Yorkshire  is  white,  the  Tamworth  red,  and  the  Hamp- 
shire black  with  a  wide  white  belt. 

Pig  Management. — ^When  swine  are  kept  in  large  numbers 
they  should  be  provided  with  an  abundance  of  good  pasture. 
Clovers  and  other  legumes  should  be  grown  for  this  purpose. 


SWINE  281 

The  cost  of  producing  a  pound  of  live  weight  is  much  less 
for  growing  pigs  than  for  those  which  have  reached  maturity. 
For  this  reason  the  farmer  finds  it  more  profitable  to  sell  his 
market  pigs  before  they  are  a  year  old.  Those  to  be  sold  as 
fat  hogs  should  not  be  fed  through  two  winters. 

The  life  of  a  spring  pig  may  be  conveniently  considered 
as  divided  into  four  feeding  periods  of  six  or  eight  weeks 
each:  (1)  The  milk  period,  during  which  time  a  large  part  of 
his  growth  is  from  his  mother's  milk,  but  some  sloppy  feed 
may  be  added;  (2)  the  wet  mash  period,  when  the  feed  is 
mostly  given  in  the  wet  form  and  plenty  of  skim  milk  is 


Fig.  187. — Students  judging  large  Yorkshire  swine.     The  bacon  type. 
(U.  S.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations). 


supplied  to  him.  The  ground  feeds,  such  as  middlings, 
gluten,  and  other  feeds  rich  in  protein,  are  used  in  the  wet 
mash;  and  some  sliced  roots  and  clover  pasture  may  be 
allowed;  (3)  the  pasture  period,  when  the  clovers  and 
grasses  produce  the  greatest  growth.  A  little  wet  mash  is 
fed  at  the  first  part  of  this  period  and  a  little  dry  grain 
toward  the  last;  (4)  the  corn  period,  or  fattening  stage.  It 
is  well  to  use  some  sliced  roots  in  addition  to  the  corn,  but 
it  is  not  best  to  give  a  wide  range  on  pasture  at  this  time. 
If  this  four-period  plan  of  feeding  is  followed  for  early 
spring  pigs  they  can  be  sold  without  carrying  them  over 
winter. 


282  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Pigs  require  plenty  of  good  water,  and  also  plenty  of 
mineral  matter.  Besides  the  mineral  matter  in  the  feeds 
they  should  be  supplied  with  charcoal,  wood  ashes,  common 
salt,  sulfur,  saltpeter,  and  air  slaked  lime.  These  may 
be  kept  under  cover  where  they  have  constant  access 
to  them. 

Hog  Cholera. — Swine  production  is  much  hampered  by 
the  disease  known  as  cholera.  This  is  very  contagious,  and 
is  most  common  in  the  corn  belt.  It  is  spread  from  place  to 
place  in  several  ways,  as  by  running  streams,  by  buzzards, 
crows,  dogs  and  other  animals,  and  on  the  shoes  of  men. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  disease  from  spreading 


Fig.  188. — A  form  of  brood  house  for  <o\v  ana  pigs.     Easily  removed  to  a  clean 
place  to  prevent  disease. 

in  any  way  (Fig.  188).  A  special  form  of  vaccination  to 
prevent  hog  cholera  is  now  being  used  by  some  large  growers. 
Farmers  have  come  into  the  practice  of  selling  pigs  before 
they  are  very  old.  The  prevalence  of  this  disease  has  been 
one  of  the  causes  of  this. 

Exercise. — Feed  and  Age  of  Pigs. — Let  students  tell 
of  the  methods  of  feeding  swiue  which  they  have  learned 
from  older  people.  Let  them  also  tell  at  what  ages  market 
pigs  are  usually  sold. 

Exercise. — Breeds  of  Swine. — A  visit  should  be  made 
with  the  class  to  places  where  good  types  of  fat  or  bacon 
pigs  are  kept.  If  there  are  pure  breds  or  high  grades  in  the 
vicinity  they  should  be  used  to  show  breed  characteristics. 


POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  283 

Exercise. — Swine  Judging. — Get  score  cards  for  fat  and 
for  bacon  types  of  swine  from  your  State  Agricultural  College 
and  have  one  or  two  lessons  in  judging.  This  will  clearly 
show  the  differences  between  the  two  types, 

REVIEW 

1.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  source  of  domestic  swine. 

2.  Describe  and  contrast  the  two  types  of  swine. 

3.  Name  the  four  most  common  breeds  of  the  fat  type  and  give 
their  origin. 

4.  Give  the  colors  and  other  distinctive  characteristics  of  these 
four  breeds. 

5.  Name  three  breeds  of  the  bacon  type  and  give  their  origin  and 
color. 

6.  Why  should  farmers  sell  young  market  swine  rather  than  older 
ones  ? 

7.  Tell  of  the  importance  of  good  pastures  for  swine. 

8.  Give  the  four  feeding  periods  of  a  pig's  life,  and  the  chief  feed 
for  each. 

9.  Mention  some  forms  of  mineral  matter  for  pigs. 
10.  Tell  how  hog  cholera  disease  is  spread. 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  100,  Hog  Raising  in  the 
South;  133,  Profitable  Crops  for  Pigs,  pp.  27-29;  183,  Meat  on  the 
Farm:  Butchering,  Curing  and  Keeping;  222,  Market  Classes  and 
Grades  of  Swine,  pp.  24-32;  272,  A  Successful  Hog  and  Seed  Corn  Farm; 
296,  Grinding  Com  for  Hogs,  p.  25;  379,  Hog  Cholera.  Bulletins  on 
Hog  Cots :  273,  pp.  1 1-14 ;  296,  pp.  27-29 ;  334,  pp.  31-32.  Bulletins  partly 
on  Swine  Feeding,  22,  97,  133,  144,  169,  210,  251,  296,  305,  315,  329. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

The  term  Poultry  commonly  includes  chickens,  ducks, 
geese,  and  turkeys;  but  may  also  refer  to  guineas,  pigeons, 
pheasants  and  peafowls.  The  keeping  of  poultry  by  farmers 
is  usually  only  incidental  to  other  lines  of  farming.  But  in 
some  sections,  particularly  near  large  cities,  poultry  raising 
is  extensively  carried  on  as  a  special  line  of  farming. 

The  value  of  poultry  and  eggs  produced  annually  on 
American  farms  is  about  two-thirds  of  a  billion  dollars.    In 


284  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

their  values  they  exceed  all  other  live  stock  except  horses 
and  cattle.  Poultry  products  equal  the  value  of  the  combined 
mine  products  of  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  coal.  When  consider- 
ing the  value  of  poultry  on  the  farm  the  farmer  should  remem- 
ber the  great  food  value  of  the  eggs  and  meat,  the  large  num- 
ber of  injurious  insects  destroyed,  and  the  ease  with  which 
they  may  be  fed,  often  living  almost  entirely  on  products 
that  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

The   production   of   improved    breeds    of   poultry   has 
received  much  attention  by  poultrymen.    This  is  particularly 


Fig.  189. — Single-comb  white  Leghorn  hen,  one  of  the  best  of  the  egg-laying  breeds. 

true  of  chickens.  There  are  many  divisions  of  this  specialty, 
such  as  the  production  of  eggs  in  winter,  raising  early  broilers, 
the  raising  of  fancy  birds  for  shows,  the  raising  of  ducks, 
geese  or  turkeys. 

Varieties  of  Chickens. — There  are  more  than  one  hundred 
varieties  of  chickens.  These  may  be  grouped  according  to 
their  purposes  into  four  classes:  (1)  Egg  breeds,  (2)  meat 
breeds,  (3)  general-purpose  breeds,  and  (4)  ornamental  breeds. 

Egg  Breeds. — These  are  of  light  weight.  They  mature 
and  begin  laying  very  young.     They  include  all  the  Leghorns 


POULTRY  MANAGEMENT 


285 


(Fig.  189),  Minorcas  (Fig.  190),  and  Spanish,  of  the  Medi- 
terranean class,  and  also  the  less  common  Red  Caps  of  the 
English  class.  The  eggs  of  these  egg  breeds  are  usually 
white. 


Fig.   190. — Black  Minorea  pair,  an  egg-laying  breed  producing  the  largest  white 


Exercise. — Egg  Records. — The  records  from  small  or 
large  flocks  of  chickens  near  by  may  be  collected.  The 
pupils  may  find  a  wide  difference  among  them.    Have  the 


286  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

causes  of  the  difference  explained  by  pupils  if  the  conditions 
can  be  learned.  Save  the  records  to  use  in  arithmetic  class. 
Meat  Breeds. — The  very  heavy  breeds  of  the  Asiatic 
class  are  very  slow-maturing  fowls.  The  Cochins,  Brahmas 
(Fig.  191),  and  Langshans  belong  to  this  group.  They  all 
have  feathers  on  the  shank,  or  lower  part  of  the  leg.  The 
Dorkings  and  Indian  Games  are  also  called  meat  breeds. 
The  heavy  meat  breeds  are  not  noted  for  their  egg-laying, 
but  the  meat  is  excellent.  They  are  good  sitters,  but  clumsy 
as  mothers. 


Fig.  191 


Fig.  191. — Light  Brahma  hen,  one  of  the  most  popular  of  heavy  fowls. 

Fig,  192. — Barred  Plymouth  Rock  hen,  the  most  popular  of  the  general-purpose  type, 

Qeneral=Purpose  Breeds. — All  varieties  of  the  American 
class  belong  here.  This  includes  the  Plymouth  Rocks  (Figs. 
192  and  193),  Wyandottes  (Fig.  194),  Javas,  Dominiques, 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  Buckeyes.  The  Orpingtons  from 
England  and  the  Houdons  from  France  are  also  included  in 
this  group.  General-purpose  breeds  are  medium  in  weight 
and  they  vary  a  great  deal  as  to  their  egg  and  meat-produc- 
ing qualities.  They  mature  much  younger  than  the  meat 
breeds,  but  not  so  early  as  the  egg  breeds.  They  are  good 
sitters  and  mothers. 


POULTRY  MANAGEMENT 


287 


Ornamental  Breeds. — These  axe  used  for  show  purposes, 
and  include  the  Bantams,  Games  (except  Indian  Games), 
Polish,  Frizzles,  Silkies,  and  other  less  common  classes.  The 
Houdons  are  sometimes  considered  as  ornamentals  because 
of  their  large  crests.  All  breeds  of  poultry,  regardless  of 
class,  are  bred  quite  commonly  for  show  purposes. 

What  Variety  to  Keep. — It  is  very  important  to  keep 
varieties  best  suited  to  the  purposes  desired.  For  large 
numbers  of  eggs  poultrymen  use  the  egg  breeds,  and  use 
them  while  young.     The  first  year  is  their  best  egg-laying 


Fig    193. 


FiQ.  194. 


Fig.  193. — ^White  Plymouth  Rock  hen,  a  general-purpose  breed. 
Fig.  194. — Prize-winning  white  Wyandotte  hen. 


year.  For  table  use,  keep  the  meat  breeds.  Within  the 
varieties  there  are  certain  strains  or  families  which  are  better 
than  others  because  they  have  been  selected  with  reference 
to  a  special  purpose. 

Exercise. — Study  of  Varieties. — Let  the  pupils  who 
have  seen  pure-bred  chickens  describe  them  to  the  class. 
If  some  are  now  keeping  any  of  the  pure  breeds,  have  them 
weigh  some  of  them  and  report  weights  to  the  class.  Com- 
pare these  with  the  standard  weights  given  in  the  United 
States  Farmers'  Bulletin  51. 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Housing. — Chickens  should  have  special  places  made  for 
them  to  roost  and  to  lay  eggs.  It  is  very  bad  practice  to 
allow  them  to  use  buildings  and  places  intended  for  other 
purposes. 


Fig.  195. — A  colony  liou.-^e  two  stories  lilgli  for  lading  Lens.     The  nests  and  scratching 
litter  are  on  the  ground. 


FiQ.  196. 


Fig.  197. 


Fig.  196. — ^Movable  chick  brooder  house  heated  by  gasoline.  ■ 
Fig.  197. — Brooder  house  for  raising  incubator  chicks.     The    Houdon    chicks 
have  been  raised  in  this  house. 


The  poultry  house  may  be  very  simple  and  inexpensive 
(Figs.  195,  196,  197).  It  should  be  dry  and  comfortable  in 
winter,  free  from  drafts  of  air,  but  with  plenty  of  fresh  air 
and  direct  sunshine.  Many  poultry  raisers  now  use  light- 
weight musUn  stretched  on  wood  frames  in  the  south  side 
of  their  poultry  houses.  The  frames  are  hinged  in  place  at 
the  top  and  are  kept  open  every  day  except  when  the  weather 


POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  289 

is  stormy.  In  many  of  these  houses  no  glass  windows  are 
used.  In  others  the  south  side  is  part  glass  and  part  muslin. 
The  curtains  prevent  any  strong  drafts  of  air  at  night  and 
in  stormy  weather.  In  houses  with  too  little  ventilation 
the  fowls  will  suffer  more  from  extremely  cold  weather  than 
in  those  with  muslin  curtains. 

Artificial  heat  in  a  poultry  house  is  not  advisable,  except 
for  brooder  chicks.  Winter  feathers  are  so  warm  that  arti- 
ficial heat  often  leads  to  some  form  of  sickness.  The  better 
plan  is  to  build  the  houses  with  low  ceilings  over  the  roosts 
so  that  the  chickens  will  sleep  warm  because  of  their  own 
heat  (Figs.  198  and  199).  Extra  curtains  may  be  placed  in 
front  of  the  roosts  for  use  on  cold  nights.  The  sides  and  roof 
of  the  house  should  be  well  built  to  keep  out  drafts  of  air  and 
rain.  Chickens  thrive  in  houses  that  are  cool  and  dry  better 
than  in  those  which  are  damp  and  warm. 

Location  of  Poultry  House. — This  is  very  important. 
Select  a  high  spot  to  put  the  chicken  house  on.  Natural 
drainage  away  from  the  building  will  help  in  keeping  the 
ground  dry  and  free  from  disease.  Sandy  or  gravelly  soil  is 
better  than  clay  for  the  same  reason.  A  place  gently  sloping 
to  the  south  is  best.  Where  natural  slopes  are  not  found  the 
surface  drainage  may  be  provided  by  grading  the  ground 
with  the  use  of  horses  and  scrapers.  This  should  be  done 
before  the  house  is  built. 

Wind  Breaks  should  be  provided  on  the  north  and  west 
sides.  They  are  sometimes  composed  of  evergreens  or  other 
trees  planted  very  near  together.  Tight  board  fences  may 
be  built.  Where  the  house  is  placed  on  the  south  side  of 
larger  farm  buildings  the  worst  winds  are  kept  away. 

Inside  the  House. — If  the  house  faces  the  south,  with  the 
muslin  windows  on  that  side,  then  the  roosts  should  be  along 
the  north  side  of  the  room.  Place  all  the  roosts  on  a  level 
with  each  other,  or  nearly  so.  Have  a  board  platform  built 
six  inches  below  the  roosts  to  keep  the  floor  clean  and  make 
19 


290 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Fig.  198. — Open-front  colony  house  for  poultry,  ready  for  a  muslin  screen  in 
large  window.  Through  the  window  may  be  seen  the  roosts,  platform,  and  nests. 
Hens  enter  nests  from  the  dark  side  at  back.  The  hinged  board  allows  the  easy 
removal  of  eggs.  , 


^.^--tT''''^ 

■^ 

^.^^ 

"^.i^ 

a^^ 

0^ 

1 

^^„..^'^:^:^^ 

'^^'^^^^ 

\ 

^ 

" 

^ — ' 

'\ 

". 

^ 

/ 

v. 

BOOSTS 

y 

""^.^ 

0      a       D      0 

,*' 

•— - 

r" 

r' 

Fig.  199. — Sectional  view  of  shed-roof  poultry  house,  shown  in  Fig.  198,  having 
muslin  curtain  in  front  instead  of  glass. 


POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  291 

more  room  for  litter  and  for  the  fowls  to  scratch.  The  nests 
may  also  be  placed  under  this  platform  if  the  room  is  small. 

The  roosts,  nests,  and  platform  should  be  so  made  as  to 
be  easily  cleaned.  These  as  well  as  the  inside  walls  should  be 
covered  with  lime  white-wash,  containing  some  disinfectant, 
renewed  from  time  to  time. 

Dust  Boxes. — Chickens  love  to  wallow  in  dust.  This 
helps  to  keep  them  free  from  mites  and  Uce.  Dust  boxes 
should  be  provided,  particularly  in  winter  time.  These  may 
be  filled  with  a  sifted  mixture  of  ashes  and  dry  soil.  Place 
the  boxes  in  sunny  places. 

Feed  Troughs  and  Hoppers. — These  should  be  used  only 
for  the  ground  feeds,  whether  wet  or  dry.  For  wet  mash 
the  troughs  are  best;  but  for  dry,  ground  feeds,  called  dry 
mash,  the  self-feeding  hoppers  are  used.  Make  the  feed 
boxes  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  fowls  from  getting 
into  the  feed  to  scratch.  The  whole  grain  should  be  fed 
in  deep  litter.  This  will  induce  the  chickens  to  do  more 
scratching,  and  keep  them  strong  and  healthy. 

Self-feeding  hoppers  are  made  so  as  to  allow  the  fowls 
to  eat  near  the  bottom.  As  fast  as  the  feed  is  used  up  more  of 
it  runs  down  from  above.  These  are  called  dry  mash  hoppers 
(Fig.  200). 

Grit  Boxes. — Boxes  for  grit,  charcoal,  and  oyster  shell 
may  be  fastened  to  the  walls  above  the  litter,  for  use  at  all 
times. 

Drinking  Fountains. — These  should  be  placed  a  foot 
above  the  floor  for  grown  chickens.  This  helps  to  keep  the 
water  clean.  A  simple  water  fountain  can  be  made  thus: 
A  gallon  pail  or  can  or  jar  without  a  top  is  used  (Fig.  201). 
Make  a  nail  hole  on  one  side  one-half  inch  from  the  top. 
Fill  with  clean  water.  Place  over  it  a  flat  pan  somewhat 
larger  than  the  mouth  of  the  vessel  used.  Then  suddenly 
invert  the  fountain,  and  place  it  on  a  low  box  in  the  poultry 
room.    As  the  water  is  used  out  of  the  pan  more  will  flow 


292 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


down  until  it  is  gone.  Care  should  be  taken  to  wash  it  well 
each  day,  and  to  keep  it  well  supplied  with  clean  water. 
All  chickens  require  much  water  to  drink. 

Feeding  Systems. — Much  discussion  has  been  carried 
on  by  poultry  raisers  as  to  the  feeding  systems  to  be  followed. 
Some  are  most  successful  with  the  wet-mash  system  of  feed- 


FiG.  200. — Dry-mash  hopper.    The  wire  screen  over  the  lower  opening  prevents 
the  waste  of  feed. 


ing  fowls.    This  system  consists  in  feeding  wet  ground  feed 
once  or  twice  a  day  and  dry  grains  at  other  times. 

Recently  a  number  of  poultrymen  have  adopted  a  plan 
known  as  the  dry-mash  system  of  feeding.  A  dry  mash  is 
made  by  mixing  a  number  of  finely  ground  feeds  together. 
This  is  kept  in  a  self -feeding  hopper  or  feeding  fountain  at  all 
times.  Besides  this  dry  mash  one  or  two  feeds  of  mixed  whole 
grains  are  given  in  the  deep  litter  on  the  floor.    The  heat- 


POULTRY  MANAGEMENT 


293 


producing  feed,  as  whole  corn,  is  fed  in  the  evening,  during 
cold  weather. 

Exercise. — Feeding  Dry  Mash. — If  possible,  to  make  a 
trial  in  winter,  let  one  or  more  persons  near  by  try  the  dry 
mash,  fed  by  the  hopper  method.  They  may  report  results 
to  the  teacher  or  to  the  school. 

Feeding  for  Winter  Eggs. — The  feed  for  egg  production, 
as  well  as  for  forcing  the  growth  of  young  broilers,  should 
be  very  rich  in  protein.  Below  are  given  several  different 
rations  in  use  on  egg  farms: 


Fig.  201. — A  simple  drinking  foimtain  for  poultry,  easily 
cleaned  each  time  before  filling. 

Dry  Mash  No.  1 . — 100  pounds  wheat  bran,  100  pounds 
wheat  middlings,  100  pounds  alfalfa  meal,  75  pounds  good 
beef  meal. 

This  is  given  as  a  dry  mash.  Whole  wheat  or  a  mixture 
of  wheat  and  oats  is  thrown  in  the  litter  every  morning; 
and  whole  corn  or  cracked  corn  in  the  evening,  just  before 
roosting  time.  Shell,  grit,  and  charcoal  are  kept  in  separate 
boxes. 

Dry  Mash  No.  2. — 100  pounds  cornmeal,  100  pounds  beef 
meal,  100  pounds  alfalfa  meal,  5  pounds  oyster  shell,  3  pounds 
grit,  3  pounds  charcoal. 

This  mash  is  fed  in  the  open  hoppers  and  kept  supplied 


294  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

constantly.  Two  grain  feeds  are  given  in  the  litter  each  day 
to  get  the  fowls  to  exercise.  This  is  a  mixture  of  one  part 
oats,  two  parts  cracked  corn,  and  three  parts  wheat. 

Wet  mashes  are  very  commonly  fed  to  chickens  of  all  ages. 
They  are  very  effective  as  forcing  feeds,  but  the  careless  use 
of  them  tends  to  produce  disease  of  various  forms.  The  two 
mixtures  given  here  may  be  shghtly  changed  to  suit  different 
conditions. 

Wet  Mash  No.  1. — One  hundred  pounds  each  of  ground 
oats,  ground  corn,  ground  barley,  and  bran. 

Wet  Mash  No.  2. — Equal  parts  by  weight  of  ground 
corn,  bran,  ground  oats,  and  cut  clover  or  cut  alfalfa. 

These  are  each  supplemented  with  grain,  fed  in  the  litter; 
and  grit,  shell,  and  charcoal  in  boxes.  Meat  scraps  are 
usually  given  separate  from  the  wet  mash. 

Exercise. — Poultry  Rations. — All  the  pupils  who  have 
poultry  at  home  should  tell  of  the  daily  system  of  feeding 
and  watering,  and  of  the  rations  fed.  Men  or  women  who 
are  successful  poultry  raisers  may  be  invited  to  tell  the  school 
their  plans  of  feeding  and  other  practical  points. 

Succulent  Feed. — Chickens  should  have  plenty  of  suc- 
culent green  feed,  if  'possible.  The  best  forms  of  this  in 
winter  are  cabbage,  turnips,  and  beets;  as  substitutes  clover 
and  alfalfa  hay  may  be  fed  wet  or  dry,  either  whole  or  cut 
fine.  Growing  rye  or  other  winter  crops  furnish  green  feed 
in  late  fall  and  early  spring.  Oats  may  be  sprouted  in  flat 
boxes  in  a  warm  room  and  fed  to  the  fowls  daily  (Fig. 
202). 

Care  of  Poultry. — Poultry  raising  is  an  art  most  easily 
acquired  by  practice  combined  with  a  study  of  the  principles 
underlying  it. 

The  health  of  the  fowls  must  be  guarded.  They  must  be 
kept  free  from  vermin.  Brush  crude  oil  (petroleum)  on  the 
roosts  once  a  week  through  the  warm  weather.  Spray  this 
oil  on  the  walls  and  in  the  nest  boxes.    The  conditions  and 


POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  295 

effects  of  moulting  must  be  understood.  Hatching  with  hens 
and  with  machines  and  the  raising  of  young  chicks  must  be 
learned  by  practice.  Many  helpful  suggestions  along  these 
lines  are  given  in  United  States  Farmers'  Bulletin  287. 

Exercise. — Running  an  Incubator. — (Fig.  203). — In  the 
spring  time,  when  the  school-room  does  not  get  too  cool  at 
night,  run  an  incubator  in  the  school-room.  One  may  be 
borrowed  for  the  purpose,  or  the  pupils  will  earn  money 
enough  to  buy  one  and  supply  the  eggs  and  kerosene.  Follow 
directions  carefully.     Appoint  certain  pupils  to  attend  the 


Fig.  202. — Sprouted  oats  as  winter  green  feed  for  hens.     The  oats  are  wet  and  put 
in  a  shallow  tray  in  a  warm  room  for  about  ten  days.     (Maine.) 

incubator  each  day.  Make  a  record  form  on  large  paper 
or  cardboard  on  the  wall.  Let  this  show  each  morning  and 
evening:  (1)  the  temperature,  (2)  whether  regulator  is  open 
or  shut,  (3)  condition  of  lamp,  (4)  who  filled  and  trimmed 
the  lamp,  (5)  who  turned  the  eggs.  The  chicks  hatched  may 
be  cared  for  at  school  for  two  weeks  or  taken  to  one  of  the 
homes  when  one  day  old  (Fig.  204).  United  States  Farmers' 
Bulletin  236  will  be  helpful.  Either  of  the  two  types  of 
outdoor  brooders  shown  in  Figs.  196  and  197  can  be  made 
by  boys  at  home. 

Exercise. — Color  of  Yolk. — When  the  grain  fed  to  hens 
is  chiefly  oats,  the  yolks  are  much  lighter  colored  than  when 


296  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

they  are  fed  corn,  particularly  yellow  corn.  Let  this  dif- 
ference in  color  of  yolk  be  shown  at  school  by  having  eggs 
brought  from  flocks  fed  in  these  ways. 

Exercise. — Packing  Eggs. — Let  pupils  tell  of  the  different 
ways  they  have  seen  eggs  packed  for  market.  Some  can  tell 
of,  the  ways  they  come  from  stores.  Should  the  eggs  be 
washed,  if  dirty,  before  marketing?  Should  they  be  sorted 
by  size  as  apples  usually  are  ?   Do  you  know  of  any  markets 


Fig.  203. — Practical  operation  of  incubators  in  a  school-room. 
(Agricultural  Education.) 


where  the  prices  are  higher  for  white-shelled  eggs,  or  higher 
for  brown-shelled  eggs  ?  (See  the  method  of  packing  shown 
in  Fig.  205.) 

Exercise. — Weight  of  Eggs. — ^Weigh  a  dozen  large  eggs 
and  get  the  average  weight  in  ounces.  Weigh  a  dozen  small 
eggs  and  get  the  average  weight.  How  many  of  the  large 
eggs  does  it  require  to  weigh  a  pound,  and  how  many  small 
ones  ?  Eggs  are  usually  sold  by  the  dozen,  but  in  some 
places  by  the  pound.    Which  way  is  fairer  ? 


POULTRY  MANAGEMENT 


297 


Exercise. — Drinking  Fountain. — Have  some  one  make 
a  drinking  fountain  like  the  one  described  and  figured,  and 
show  how  it  works  (Fig.  201). 


Fig.  204. — A  hundred  white  Leghorn  chicks  from  an  incubator.     (Cornell.) 

Exercise. — Testing  Eggs. — Let  some  form  of  tester  be 
used  in  testing  eggs  brought  from  homes  or  from  a  store. 
Eggs  are  usually  candled  in  some  stores  to  detect  any  not 


Fig.  205. — A  good  way  to  prepare  eggs  for  market.  Each  dozen  is  uniform 
in  size  and  color  and  packed  in  the  dozen-size  cartons  of  pasteboard.  The  crate 
is  painted  and  labelled  with  the  owner's  name,    (H.  R.  Lewis.) 


suitable  for  human  food.  This  is  done  thus:  Put  a  candle 
or  stronger  Hght  in  a  dark  box;  have  an  oval  hole  a  httle 
smaller  than  an  egg  in  one  side,  even  with  the  light;  let  that 
part  of  the  room  where  the  testing  is  to  be  done  be  darkened 
somewhat.     Hold  an  egg  over  the  hole  and  look  for  any 


298  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

dark  or  clouded  parts  in  the  contents.  Other  forms  of  egg 
testers  are  in  use.  The  eggs  in  an  incubator  are  usually 
tested  the  fifth  or  sixth  day  to  see  if  a  live,  growing  germ  is 
present. 

Exercise. — Preserving  Eggs. — Let  some  of  the  pupils 
preserve  a  few  dozen  fresh  eggs.  April  or  May  is  a  good 
time  to  preserve  them  for  winter  use.  The  eggs  may  bo 
kept  at  home  and  the  report  of  the  trial  made  to  the  class 
a  few  months  later.  Directions:  Scald  out  a  stone  jar  with 
boiling  water.  Prepare  a  solution,  using  water  that  has  been 
first  boiled  and  then  cooled  to  ordinary  temperature.  To 
each  seven  quarts  of  water  add  one  pint  of  water-glass^  pur- 
chased at  a  drug  store.  Select  clean  (not  washed)  fresh  eggs, 
and  place  them  in  the  jar.  Pour  the  liquid  over  the  eggs, 
covering  them  more  than  an  inch  above  the  top  ones.  Keep 
them  in  a  dark,  cool,  dry  cellar. 

Problems. — A  flock  containing  28  pullets  laid  1600  eggs 
in  January,  February  and  March — 

1.  What  was  the  average  number  of  eggs  from  each? 

2.  What  was  the  average  number  of  eggs  from  the  flock 
for  each  of  the  90  days? 

3.  If  400  of  the  eggs  were  laid  in  January  and  sold  at  an 
average  price  of  36  cents  a  dozen,  what  was  the  income  for 
January? 

4.  If  they  laid  500  eggs  in  February  worth  30  cents  a 
dozen,  what  was  the  income  for  the  month? 

5.  They  laid  700  eggs  in  March  which  were  sold  at  18 
cents  a  dozen.    What  was  the  amount  of  the  month's  sales? 

6.  Find  the  total  income  from  the  28  pullets  for  the  three 
months. 

7.  Find  the  average  income  from  each  hen  for  the  three 
months. 


BEE-KEEPING  200 


REVIEW 

1.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  importance  of  the  poultry  industry 
in  this  country. 

-*  <  ;i\('  a  Hst  of  the  special  egg-laying  breeds  of  chickens.  How 
m;m\  t  ..lois  of  (hcHo  have  you  heard  of  ? 

3.  (Jive  a  list  of  the  special  meat  breeds. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  general-purpose  breeds?  For  what  are  they 
used  ?    Name  them. 

5.  Describe  a  good  location  for  a  poultry  house. 

().  Why  shouldohickciiH  havi?  a  houHc  of  thoir  own  ? 

7.  Tell  of  the  plan  for  muslin  windows  for  poultry  houses.  Why 
are  they  ustnl  ? 

8.  Mention  some  of  the  rccjuircmcnts  of  a  good  poultry  house. 

9.  Whv  not  use  artificial  heat  in  poultry  houHosr 

10.  Tellof  some  good  wind-broaks  for  tiic  poultry  house. 

1 1 .  Describe,  or  draw  on  paper,  the  msuW  arrangement  of  the  poultry 
house. 

12.  Why  are  dust  baths  necessary  for  hens? 

13.  Describe  a  good  drinking  fountain  for  chickens. 

14.  Wluit  do  poultry  raisers  nu»an  by  wet  mash  and  dry  mash  ? 
If).  Why  should  some  grain  be  thrown  into  the  litter  every  day? 
Iti.  Describes  a  daily  ration  for  laying  hens.     (1)  Wet  system.     (2) 

Dry  system. 

17.  What  feeds  will  supply  succulence  in  winter  ? 

18.  Tell  how  to  destroy  vermin  on  roosts  and  in  nests. 

References. — United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins:  61.  Standard  Vari- 

cti«'s  of  CliKkitL  ;  C)!,   Ducks  and  Geese;   177,  Squab  Raising;  182, 

ToiiliiN    I    I I     I  HI    I  iirk<'ys;  234,  The  Guinea  Fowl;  23(i,  Incubation 

and  ill*  iiUaiur.",,  ^s/,  I'oiiltry  Management;  3r).5,  A  Successful  Poultry 
and  Dairy  Farm;  :^')7,  Methods  of  Poultry  ManageuK'nt  at  tlu^  Maine 
Agricultural  Kxperinient  Station;  31K),  Pheasant  liaising  in  the  United 
States;  452,  Capon.s  and  C'aponizing. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
BEE-KEEPING. 


When  the  subject  of  pollination  of  fruit  trees  was  dis- 
cussed two  purposes  of  ]M'e-k(M>|)ifin  were  inontioned.  The 
production  of  lioiuy  and  the  ])olliiuitioQ  of  fruit  l)los8om8  are 
both  sources  of  profit  on  the  farm.  A  fairly  good  average 
yield  from  a  colony  of  Ixcs  cmcIi  season  is  forty  jxunids  of 
extracted  honey  or  tvvenly-livc  pounds  of  comb  honey. 
When  honey  is  cxIi.k  hd  from  the  combs  the  bees  are  not 


300  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

required  to  build  new  combs  and  much  of  their  time  is  saved 
for  honey-making. 

There  are  very  few  bee-keepers  who  make  this  the  only 
source  of  their  income.  It  is  usually  combined  with  other 
lines  of  farming.  Bees  are  kept  in  both  city  and  country. 
The  flowers,  or  bee-pastures,  from  which  bees  secure  their 
nectar,  must  not  be  too  far  from  the  hives  of  the  bees.  Bees 
frequently  go  two  or  three  miles  in  search  of  nectar,  but  their 
main  supply  should  be  much  nearer. 

Breeds. — The  wild  honey  bees  are  of  the  black  or  German 
variety,  brought  by  early  settlers  to  this  country.  This  breed 
is  also  kept  by  a  few  farmers.  The  chief  objection  to  bees 
of  this  breed  is  that  they  are  very  cross  and  easily  excited. 
A'number  of  other  breeds  have  been  brought  to  America. 

Italian  bees  are  now  much  more  in  use  than  any  other 
breed.  These  bees  are  easily  managed,  and  are  good  defend- 
ers of  their  hives.  They  are  good  honey  gatherers.  Italian 
bees  are  easily  recognized  by  the  three  yellow  bands  across 
the  body  behind  the  wings.  They  are  more  difficult  to 
keep  over  winter  than  some  of  the  other  kinds.  Hybrid 
bees  are  commonly  found  in  American  bee  yards.  Many 
of  these  have  been  formed  by  Italian  bees  crossing  with 
other  breeds. 

Cyprian  bees  are  the  best  honey  gatherers,  but  they  have 
bad  tempers  and  their  management  is  difficult. 

Carniolan  bees  are  very  quiet.  They  are  the  largest  of 
all  our  breeds  of  bees,  and  have  great  wing  power.  As  honey 
gatherers  they  are  among  the  best.  They  multiply  in  the 
hives  quite  rapidly  and  much  time  is  spent  in  swarming  to 
divide  the  colony. 

Caucasian  bees  are  very  gentle,  good  workers,  and  defend 
their  hives  well.  They  swarm  rather  too  often  if  kept  in 
small  hives. 

Syrian  bees  are  much  like  the  Cyprians  in  temper,  and 
they  are  not  as  thrifty  workers. 


BEE-KEEPING  301 

The  Colony. — Bees  in  a  colony  are  of  three  kinds,  workers, 
drones,  and  queens.  The  workers  number  from  30,000  to 
40,000  in  a  colony  at  the  beginning  of  the  gathering  season. 
These  do  all  the  work  of  the  colony;  they  are  really  females, 
but  never  lay  eggs.  There  are  only  a  few  hundred  drones 
or  male  bees,  and  only  one  queen.  The  queen  bee  lays  all 
the  eggs  to  produce  new  colonies. 

The  Life  of  Bees. — The  workers,  acting  as  nurse  bees, 
place  the  eggs,  laid  by  the  queen,  in  the  bottom  of  the  wax- 
cells.  The  larva  hatches  from  the  egg  in  about  three  days 
and  is  fed  with  pollen  and  honey  by  the  nurse  bees.  In  five 
days  the  pupa  stage  is  reached.  It  rests  as  a  pupa  for  thirteen 
days,  when  the  mature  insect  appears.  Twenty-one  days 
are  thus  used  in  the  development  of  worker  bees.  Queens 
are  produced  in  a  little  less  time,  and  drones  require  twenty- 
four  days.  The  first  duty  of  the  young  workers  is  to  act  as 
nurses.  But  in  about  two  weeks  they  begin  gathering  honey. 
Workers  usually  wear  their  wings  out  and  die  in  less  than  one 
season.  Queens  live  several  years.  The  drones  are  nearly 
all  killed  and  thrown  out  in  the  fall  or  before  the  winter  is 
over.    The  life  of  the  colony  is  kept  up  by  young  bees. 

Honey=Making. — Worker-bees  visit  flowers,  suck  the 
nectar,  and  store  it  in  honey  sacks  in  their  bodies.  They 
fly  to  the  hive  and  deposit  the  nectar  in  wax  cells,  made  by 
other  workers.  Some  of  the  workers  dry  out  the  nectar  by 
producing  a  breeze  with  their  wings  over  the  cells.  Study 
the  structure  of  the  worker-bee  as  shown  in  Fig.  206. 

White  clover,  alsike  clover,  alfalfa,  basswood,  locust, 
fruit  trees,  buckwheat,  and  golden-rod  are  among  the  best 
plants  for  the  production  of  nectar.  There  are  hundreds  of 
plants  grown  for  other  purposes  which  are  used  by  bees  in 
the  making  of  honey. 

Hives. — A  good  beehive  is  in  the  form  of  a  box  with  a 
removable  bottom  and  top  (Fig.  207).  The  bottom  projects 
to  form  an  entrance  platform.    A  small  slot  is  made  in  the 


302 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Fig.  206. — Bee  structures:  a,  worker-bee,  pollen  loaded;  6,  mouth  parts  of  a 
long-tongued  bee;  c,  hind  leg  of  bee  showing  pollen  carrier;  d,  wax  cutter  and 
curry-comb  of  1st  joint  of  hind  leg;  e,  antenna-cleaner  of  fore  leg;  /,  hair  of  bumble- 
bee; g,  h,  i,  hairs  of  three  different  kinds  of  bees.  (From  Smith's  "Insect  Friends 
and  Enemies.") 


BEE-KEEPING 


303 


front  just  above  the  floor  for  the  entrance  of  bees.  Frames 
are  hung  inside  the  box,  and  are  supplied  with  honeycomb. 
These  combs  will  become  filled  with  honey  and  young  bee- 
bread.  Then  another  box  called  a  super  is  placed  above  the 
first  one.  If  comb  honey  is  wanted  for  use  or  for  market, 
the  super  is  supplied  with  small  frames  to  hold  one  pound 
each.  If  hquid,  or  extracted,  honey  is  wanted  the  frames 
in  the  super  are  much  larger.  From  these  the  honey  is 
removed  without  destroying  the  cells. 


Fig.  207. — Typioal  boeliivp.     (Fn.ni   '"Iho  A,   ]'>,  C  r,f  ]>.vo  Culture," 
A,  1.  lluut  Company.; 


Swarming. — In  early  summer  the  hives  of  bees  usually 
become  overcrowded  with  bees,  because  of  the  young  broods 
maturing.  This  brings  on  the  desire  to  swarm.  One  queen 
goes  out  with  the  swarm,  usually  leaving  a  queen  cell  in  the 
old  hive  from  which  a  young  queen  emerges  in  a  few  days. 
The  swarm  usually  gathers  on  some  object,  as  a  tree  near  by. 
If  an  empty  hive  is  ready  the  queen  and  most  of  the  bees 
can  be  taken  while  quiet  and  placed  near  the  entrance  to 
the  hive  or  in  the  hive.    The  colony  will  then  adopt  this  as 


304  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

its  new  home.  It  is  important  that  hives  be  watched  closely 
at  the  season  when  most  of  the  swarming  is  done.  This  will 
help  to  prevent  loss  of  swarms.  Many  swarms  are  lost  each 
year  by  not  knowing  when  the  queen  and  bees  leave  the  hive. 
One  way  of  preventing  loss  in  this  way  is  to  keep  the  wings 
of  the  queen  clipped  so  that  she  cannot  fly  away.  This  is  a 
common  practice  among  bee-keepers. 

Winter  Care. — Bees  should  be  protected  during  severe 
winter  weather.  They  may  be  placed  in  sheds  or  dry  cellars, 
or  in  houses  built  for  the  purpose.  They  must  not  be  kept  too 
warm,  but  sudden  change  in  temperature  is  bad  for  the  bees. 
Hives  are  sometimes  made  double  and  the  space  between  the 
walls  is  filled  with  sawdust  or  other  material.  The  hives  are 
sometimes  covered  with  straw,  carpet  or  other  means  of 
protection.  The  door  is  left  open  so  that  bees  may  exercise 
on  warm  days. 

Exercise. — Bee  Studies. — Students  may  tell  what  plants 
they  have  seen  bees  visiting  for  honey.  Also  what  methods 
they  know  to  prevent  the  stinging  of  bees;  how  hiving  of 
swarms  is  done;  and  what  means  of  protection  are  used  in 
winter  by  local  bee-keepers. 

REVIEW 

1.  Name  the  several  breeds  or  races  of  bees. 

2.  Which  one  is  most  in  use  in  America  ?  What  are  its  character- 
istics ? 

3.  What  three  kinds  of  bees  are  in  a  colony  ?  About  how  many  of 
each  kind  ? 

4.  Describe  the  development  of  the  yoimg  honey  bee. 

5.  Describe  the  making  of  honey. 

6.  Tell  how  a  beehive  is  made. 

7.  What  is  the  super?   What  is  it  for  ? 

8.  Why  do  bees  swarm  ?    When  is  this  most  common  ? 

9.  Tell  of  the  need  for  winter  care  of  bees. 

References.  —  U,  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  442,  Bee  Diseases; 
447,  Bees. 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  305 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
FEEDS  AND  FEEDING. 

The  nourishment  and  development  of  animals  is  more 
complicated  than  the  growth  of  plants.  Their  growth  is 
from  the  use  of  substances  ready  formed  in  plants,  or  which 
have  been  derived  from  them.  These  are  transformed  into 
flesh  and  bone. 

Composition  of  Animals. — The  animal  body  is  composed  of 
substances  derived  directly  or  indirectly  from  plants.  It  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes  of  products,  water  and  dry  matter. 

Water  ordinarily  is  more  than  one-half  of  the  total  weight 
of  the  live  animal  and  is  necessary  for  the  proper  nourishment 
of  the  body.  Pure  fresh  water  should  be  supplied  freely  to 
all  animals. 

The  dry  or  soUd  matter  of  an  animal's  body  is  made  up 
of  several  different  substances,  called  tissues,  as  fat,  muscle, 
bone  and  others.  The  chief  substances  which  enter  into 
these  are  fat,  protein,  horny  matter  and  mineral  matter. 

Exercise. — Water  in  Flesh. — Heat  a  small  piece  of  fresh 
lean  beef  or  other  meat  in  a  long  glass  test  tube.  Notice 
the  water  which  rises  and  collects  on  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
vessel.  If  deUcate  scales  or  balances  are  in  the  school,  the 
meat  may  be  weighed  before  and  after  heating.  Thus  the 
weight  of  water  driven  off  may  be  determined. 

Exercise. — To  Get  Dry  Matter. — Place  a  few  small  pieces 
of  air-dry  wood  of  any  kind  in  a  glass  test-tube  or  bottle 
over  a  flame  or  on  a  hot  stove.  The  moisture  will  escape 
from  the  wood  and  condense  on  the  cooler  parts  of  the  glass 
above  the  wood  where  it  can  be  seen.  After  a  time  only  the 
dry  matter  will  remain  in  the  bottom  of  the  glass.  If  the 
wood  be  weighed  before  and  after  drying,  the  per  cent  of 
dry  matter  may  be  determined. 
20 


306  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Essentials  in  Animal  Feeds. — As  the  animal  body  con- 
sists of  several  classes  of  substances,  it  demands  similar 
classes  from  the  feeds  consumed.  The  substances  in  animal 
feeds  are:  (1)  Protein,  (2)  carbohydrates,  (3)  fats,  (4)  mineral 
salts. 

Protein. — The  protein  of  a  feed  includes  vegetable  albu- 
men, fibrin,  and  other  substances  similar  to  the  protein  of 
the  animal  body.  The  term  albumenoids  was  formerly  used 
to  designate  this  class  of  substances  when  contained  in  feed 
or  in  animal  tissues. 

The  different  kinds  of  protein  substances  vary  somewhat 
in  their  composition.  They  are  all  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  are 
quite  uniform  in  their  value  in  feeds.  They  are  the  most 
important  of  the  compounds  in  feed,  and  are  indispensable, 
as  they  are  the  sole  direct  source  of  the  protein  in  the  bodies 
of  all  domestic  animals.  The  chief  forms  in  which  protein 
is  found  in  the  animal's  body  are:  albumen,  fibrin,  and  casein. 
These  differ  widely  in  appearance  but  agree  in  containing 
about  the  same  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  Gluten  is  abundant 
in  wheat.  Albumen  is  well  represented  by  the  white  of  an 
egg.  Fibrin  is  seen  in  the  white  solid  of  coagulated  blood 
remaining  after  the  red  color  is  washed  out.  Casein  is  the 
basis  of  cheese. 

Exercise. — Protein  in  Wheat. — Make  some  stiff  dough 
of  wheat  flour.  Wash  the  dough  in  cold  water  to  remove 
the  starch.  The  remainder  will  become  very  elastic.  It  is 
made  up  chiefly  of  that  kind  of  protein  called  gluten.  The 
"gum"  formed  from  chewing  wheat  is  also  chiefly  gluten. 

Exercise. — Study  of  Protein. — Examine  some  of  the 
other  substances  mentioned,  and  let  pupils  become  familiar 
with  the  different  forms  of  protein.  Have  present  the  white 
of  egg,  both  raw  and  cooked.  American  cheese  or  cottage 
cheese,  or  both,  may  be  put  into  small  bottles  with  a  weak 
solution  of  formalin  to  preserve  them  for  future  use  in 
illustrating  that  form  of  protein  called  casein. 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  307 

Carbohydrates. — Plant  fiber,  sugar  and  staich  are  the 
most  important  of  the  carbohydrates.  They  are  of  about 
the  same  composition,  containing  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen  only,  no  nitrogen  being  present. 

The  cell  wall  or  structural  part  of  a  plant  is  called  cellulose. 
Where  great  strength  is  needed,  the  cell  walls  become  thick 
and  hard  as  in  trees.  There  is  little  cellulose  in  seeds.  It 
is  found  in  greater  proportions  in  ripe  hay,  straw,  and  corn 
fodder.  Paper  is  now  chiefly  made  from  the  cellulose  or 
fiber  of  wood.  Flax  fiber  and  cotton  are  good  examples  of 
nearly  pure  cellulose.  Pure  fiber  has  very  little  color,  odor, 
or  taste. 

Exercise. — Cellulose. — Make  wet  paper  balls  of  as  many 
different  kinds  of  paper  as  you  have  in  school.  The  water 
will  remove  starch  and  other  substances  and  leave  the  pure 
fiber  or  cellulose.  Brown  paste-board  may  be  used  to  illus- 
trate the  fiber  in  straw  of  small  gi*ains.  Fiber  of  flax  is 
found  in  Unen  paper  and  linen  cloth.  Most  soft  white 
paper  is  made  of  wood  fiber. 

Starch  is  stored  by  nearly  all  kinds  of  plants.  It  is  a  very 
abundant  substance.  Small  grains,  corn,  and  the  dry  matter 
of  root  crops  are  especially  rich  in  this  substance.  Potatoes 
and  com  furnish  most  of  the  pure  starch  in  the  commerce 
of  America.  Because  of  its  abundance  and  ease  of  digestion, 
starch  is  one  of  the  most  important  feeds.  It  is  readily 
converted  into  glucose,  or  grape  sugar,  by  treatment  with 
acids.  The  glucose  syrups  are  largely  derived  from  the 
starch  of  corn. 

Exercise. — Showing  Starch. — Cut  open  kernels  of  corn, 
wheat,  rye,  and  other  common  grains.  Examine  the  white 
powder.    This  is  nearly  pure  starch. 

Sugars  are  closely  related  to  starch.  There  are  three 
kinds:  cane  sugar,  milk  sugar,  and  grape  or  fruit  sugar. 
These  are  very  much  alike  in  composition.  All  resemble  each 
other  in  their  properties.    Cane  sugar  is  the  conmion  sugar 


308  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

of  commerce.  It  is  derived  from  the  stems  of  sugar-cane 
and  from  the  sugar-beet.  Milk  sugar  is  from  the  milk  of  the 
cow  and  other  animals.  Grape  or  fruit  sugar  is  abundant 
in  honey  and  sweet  fruits  and  occurs  in  the  juices  of 
many  plants. 

Sugars  are  easily  digested,  as  they  are  all  readily  soluble 
in  water.  When  animals  eat  sugar  beets  and  sorghum  fodder 
the  sugar  is  used  directly  as  feed.  Sugar  is  a  very  important 
feed  and  although  it  occurs  only  in  small  quantities  in 
ordinary  feeds,  it  is  formed  in  large  quantities  from  starch 
during  digestion. 

Fat. — The  fat  in  animals  agrees  closely  in  composition 
with  that  contained  in  plants.  Fat  exists  in  some  seeds,  as 
flax  and  cotton,  in  such  quantities  as  to  make  them  valuable 
as  sources  of  oil,  for  feed  and  other  uses.  Most  of  the  oil 
is  pressed  out  before  the  remainder  of  the  seed  is  used 
for  feed. 

Exercise. — To  Show  Presence  of  Oil. — Get  seeds  of  flax, 
cotton,  sunflower,  or  castor  bean.  Crush  them  and  rub 
between  the  fingers  to  detect  the  oil.  It  has  been  stored 
there  by  plants  for  future  use  of  the  young  plant  sprouting 
from  the  seed. 

Mineral  Matter  is  what  remains  of  plants  after  they  have 
been  burned;  it  is  the  ash.  Some  plants,  as  alfalfa,  are  rich 
in  mineral  matter.  In  ordinary  fodders  there  is  usually 
enough  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  animal  body.  Common 
salt  is  fed  separately.  Hogs  are  fed  with  ashes  and  charcoal 
from  wood  and  cobs,  to  supply  them  with  more  mineral 
matter.  They  even  get  much  mineral  matter  from  the 
soil  itself. 

Analysis  of  Feeds. — The  State  laws  of  most  States  author- 
ize the  agricultural  experiment  stations  to  take  samples  of 
feeds  offered  for  sale  within  the  State  and  make  analyses  of 
them.  The  reports  of  these  analyses  usually  show  the  per 
cent  of  total  dry  matter  and  water,  and  the  per  cents  of 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


309 


protein,  carbohydrates,  fat,  and  mineral  matter  (Fig.  208). 
Such  reports  are  very  valuable  to  all  stock  feeders,  as  the 
figures  indicate  as  clearly  as  is  possible  the  feeding  value  of 
each  kind  analyzed.  Those  feeds,  rich  or  poor  in  any  one 
ingredient,  as  protein,  may  be  easily  compared  in  the  pub- 
lished tables.     (See  Appendix.) 

Feeds  Changed  Into  Animal  Tissues. — The  object  of 
feeding  is  to  furnish  material  for  supporting  life,  and  for 
building  up  the  animal  body  and  the  secm*ing  of  some  prod- 


FiG.  208. — The  bottle  at  the  right  represents  100  ounces  of  shelled  com.  The 
five  bottles  at  the  left  represent  the  chemical  composition  of  this  corn  as  determined 
by  analysis.  The  elements  are  as  follows;  starch,  80.35  ounces;  protein,  10.92 
ounces;  oil,  4.70  ounces;  fiber,  2.60  oimces;  ash,  1.43  ounces. 


uct,  as  milk  from  cows,  eggs  from  hens,  wool  from  sheep. 
Each  of  the  four  classes  of  compounds  of  the  feed  is  of  special 
use  in  the  process.  Any  one  alone,  as  starch  or  fat,  is  unable 
to  completely  nourish  the  body  and  maintain  life. 

Animals  are  incapable  of  making  very  great  changes  in 
these  feed  compounds.  Each  is  changed  into  similar  animal 
products  in  the  living  animal  by  a  series  of  processes  called 
digestion,  circulation,  respiration,  secretion,  and  absorption. 

Loss  in  These  Processes. — In  these  five  processes  of 
life,  digestion  in  particular,  the  substances  contained  in  the 


310  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

feed  are  not  all  changed  into  animal  products.  Some  of  the 
feed  is  used  to  maintain  or  carry  on  the  digestion.  There  is 
always  a  loss.  Any  material  capable  of  building  up  tissue 
or  of  replacing  this  loss,  in  whole  or  in  part,  is  valuable  as 
feed  for  the  animal. 

Nutrients. — ^Any  single  compound,  like  protein  or  fat, 
is  called  a  nutrient.  All  feeds  must  contain  nutrients.  They 
must  be  palatable,  so  stock  will  hke  them. .  They  should  be 
largely  digestible.  Some  of  the  feed  each  day  must  possess 
enough  bulk  to  properly  fill  or  distend  the  digestive  organs. 

Roughage  and  Concentrates. — It  is  common  to  divide 
all  animal  feeds  into  two  classes :  coarse  fodders  or  roughage, 
and  concentrated  feeds.  By  roughage  is  meant  such  bulky 
feeds  as  hay,  cornstalks,  straw,  and  green  fodders. 

Concentrated  feeds  are  the  more  highly  nourishing  mate- 
rials with  less  bulk.  Ground  or  whole  grains,  peas,  bran, 
middlings,  and  other  mill  products  are  concentrates. 

Hay. — Those  forms  of  hay  produced  from  the  true 
grasses,  as  orchard  grass,  red  top  and  timothy,  are  rich  in 
carbohydrates  and  indigestible  fiber,  but  contain  very  little 
protein.  Hay  made  from  alfalfa  and  clover  is  nearly  as 
bulky,  but  much  richer  in  protein  than  the  others. 

The  value  of  any  hay  depends  upon  the  kind  or  variety, 
the  condition  at  time  of  cutting,  and  the  success  in  curing. 

Corn  Stalks  and  Straw. — These  are  very  bulky  forms  of 
roughage  and  are  so  rich  in  fiber  that  they  are  harder  to 
digest  than  good  hay.  The  nutritive  matter  that  first  existed 
in  the  growing  crop  has  passed  into  the  seeds,  which  have 
been  removed.  This  leaves  the  straw  poorer  in  both  protein 
and  carbohydrates.  Corn  grown  for  fodder,  if  the  ears  are 
not  to  be  removed,  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  well 
glazed.  Racks  for  feeding  corn  fodder  and  straw  are  shown 
in  Fig.  211. 

Green  Forage  Crops. — The  growing  of  crops  for  green 
forage  has  been  discussed  in  another  chapter.    Such  feeds  are 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  311 

watery  in  character.  They  contain,  however,  the  same 
nutrients  as  the  hay  made  from  them,  if  no  loss  occurs  in 
making  the  hay.  Their  weight  when  green  makes  them 
difficult  to  handle.  This  disadvantage  is  balanced  by  the 
saving  of  all  nutrients.  Green  fodders  are  more  succulent 
and  are  liked  better  by  stock.  They  are  more  easily  digested 
than  dry  fodders,  and  contain  more  protein  because  of  being 
cut  at  an  earlier  stage  of  growth. 

Grasses,  growing  corn,  alfalfa,  and  other  fodders  when 
cut  and  fed  green  to  stock  are  called  soiling  crops,  as 
stated  in  Chapter  X.  Many  of  the  best  stock  feed- 
ers are  using  such  green  feeds  a  great  deal.  It  saves 
much  in  the  way  of  pasture  room.  Several  times  as  many 
cows  can  be  fed  from  a  certain  field  as  could  pasture  well 
on  it.  The  pasture  system  is  too  common  to  need  any 
description. 

Ensilage. — Silos  are  made  of  various  building  materials, 
such  as  wood,  brick,  stone,  and  concrete  (Figs.  80  and  209). 
They  are  made  air  tight  and  will  preserve  fodder  corn  or 
other  green  feed  in  such  condition  as  to  retain  most  of  the 
succulent  qualities  of  the  original  product.  Such  feed  is 
called  ensilage.  It  is  highly  valued  on  dairy  farms,  where 
succulence  in  the  daily  feed  is  very  important.  Corn  stalks 
with  the  ears  still  attached  are  cut  when  the  grain  is  well 
glazed.  The  whole  crop  is  run  through  a  revolving  cutter 
and  the  small  pieces  and  leaves  thrown  or  blown  into  the 
top  of  the  tall  silo  (Fig.  209).  The  silos  are  usually  round 
and  are  twelve  to  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  The  depth  is 
from  twenty  to  forty  feet.  Small  doors  along  one  side  allow 
the  ensilage  to  be  taken  out  easily  during  the  winter  months, 
or  whenever  it  is  being  fed. 

Root  Crops. — Mangels  and  beets  are  grown  especially 
for  cows,  turnips  for  hogs  and  sheep,  carrots  for  horses.  But 
these  and  other  root  crops  may  be  used  for  all  kinds  of  farm 
animals.    They  are  valuable  as  feed  particularly  when  the 


312 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


other  feed  used  is  in  the  dry  form.  They  all  contain  much 
water  and  are  very  succulent.  Stock  usually  hke  them,  and 
they  are  very  digestible.  The  effect  upon  the  animal  system 
is  very  good. 

Concentrates  from  Grains. — Many  of  the  concentrates 
in  use  are  made  from  the  grains  of  the  cereals.  The  various 
products  which  they  furnish  are  suited  for  all  kinds  of  farm 


Fig.  209. — A  modem  brick  silo  near  end  of  dairy  bam.     The  cutter  and  pipe  through 
which  cut  com  is  blown  are  in  place  to  begin  filling  silo. 


animals.  They  are  easily  digested  and  nearly  all  are  rich 
in  the  three  groups  of  feed  compounds,  protein,  carbohy- 
drates, and  fats. 

Corn  makes  up  more  than  half  of  the  concentrate  feeds 
used  for  animals  in  America.  It  is  largely  used  for  fattening 
hogs  and  beef  animals,  and  for  the  feeding  of  work  animals. 
It  is  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  oil,  but  contains  very  little 
mineral  matter  and  less  protein  than  the  small  grains. 
It  is  used  in  fattening  stock. 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  313 

Oats  are  commonly  used  as  horse  feed,  particularly  in  the 
North.  They  are  richer  in  protein  than  corn.  For  this 
reason  they  make  better  feed  for  horses  than  corn  where 
timothy  hay  is  used  as  roughage. 

By=Products  and  Mill  Feeds. — Millers  make  flour  from 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  buckwheat,  and  meal  from  corn  and 
oats.  Breakfast  foods  are  made  from  all  of  these.  In  the 
making  of  these  products  for  human  use  there  are  many 
parts  of  the  grains  not  used;  such  are  called  by-products. 
They  are  all  carefully  saved  and  sold  for  the  feeding  of 
animals.    Bran  and  middlings  are  common  examples  of  these. 

There  are  also  by-products  from  the  manufacture  of 
starch,  glucose,  sugar,  beverages,  oils,  and  even  from  the 
dressing  and  curing  of  meats. 

The  term  mill  feeds  may  include  also  the  ground  grains, 
either  mixed  or  singly.  Corn,  oats,  and  rye  are  often  used  in 
the  ground  form  for  stock. 

Bran. — The  outer  coats  of  wheat,  removed  in  making 
flour,  are  called  bran.  Much  of  the  protein  of  the  grain  is 
just  beneath  the  outer  coats  or  coverings  of  the  grain  and  is 
kept  with  the  bran  during  the  milling  process.  There  is  a 
higher  per  cent  of  protein  in  wheat  bran  than  in  the  .wheat 
itself.  The  bran  from  com  is  of  little  value  and  is 
seldom  sold. 

Wheat  Middlings. — The  by-product  from  wheat  called 
middlings  is  better  than  bran  in  its  total  amount  of  nutrients. 
It  has  as  much  protein,  and  is  richer  in  starch.  There  is 
less  fiber  in  middlings  and  this  makes  it  better  for  hogs. 
Shorts  is  another  name  given  to  middlings.  Sometimes  mill 
sweepings  and  finely  ground  wastes  are  mixed  with  middlings 
and  sold  under  the  name  of  shorts. 

Gluten  Meal. — ^When  starch  and  glucose  syrups  are  made 
from  corn  the  by-product  or  remainder  of  the  grain  is  ground 
up  and  sold  under  such  names  as  gluten  feed  and  gluten 
meal     It  has  in  it  the  protein,  the  oil,  and  the  bran.    It  is 


314  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

very  high  in  protein  and  is  mixed  with  other  concentrates 
for  the  feeding  of  dairy  cows. 

Brewers^  Grains. — These  are  the  by-products  from  brew- 
eries and  contain  both  the  bran  and  the  germs  of  barley. 
When  dried  and  mixed  with  other  concentrates  they  are  very 
suitable  for  dairy  cows.  They  are  somewhat  richer  in  pro- 
tein than  wheat  bran.  Brewers'  grains  are  sometimes  fed 
while  very  wet.  Cows  like  them  in  this  condition  if  the  grains 
are  not  allowed  to  spoil,  which  they  are  likely  do  do  in 
warm  weather. 

Beet  Pulp. — After  sugar  is  extracted  from  sugar-beets 
the  shredded  pulp  is  dried  and  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the 
country  for  use  as  stock  feed.  It  should  be  again  wet  and 
soaked  for  a  few  hours  before  feeding.  Dairymen  are  now 
feeding  beet  pulp  quite  extensively  as  a  winter  succulence, 
substituting  it  wholly  or  in  part  for  ensilage.  Its  chief 
nutrient  is  carbohydrate,  there  being  little  protein. 

Cottonseed  Meal. — Cottonseed  meal  is  one  of  the  richest 
of  the  concentrates  produced  from  plants  for  stock  feed. 
It  is  the  chief  by-product  from  the  cottonseed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cottonseed  oil.  The  hulls  are  usually  first  removed 
and  the  oil  pressed  out  of  the  cottonseed.  The  remaining 
feed  is  ground  into  the  form  of  meal,  and  fed  to  stock  with 
grains  or  other  concentrated  feeds  and  with  fodders.  Cotton- 
seed meal  is  very  rich  in  protein  and  has  more  fat  than  most 
of  the  other  grains.  In  feeding  it  to  stock  much  care  must 
be  exercised,  as  when  fed  too  heavily  there  is  sometimes 
a  poisonous  effect. 

Linseed  Meal. — This  is  frequently  called  oil-meal  in  the 
North,  as  cottonseed  meal  is  less  common  there.  It  is  a  by- 
product from  the  manufacture  of  oil  from  flaxseed.  The 
oil  is  chiefly  used  for  paint.  The  meal  is  of  two  kinds,  called 
old  process  and  new  process.  In  the  old  process  the  oil  is 
pressed  from  the  flaxseed  and  the  remaining  part  is  broken 
into  small  pieces  or  ground  into  meal  for  feed.    In  the  new 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


315 


process  the  oil  is  more  completely  removed  by  the  use  of 
gasoline  or  ether.  The  difference  in  their  feeding  values  is 
very  slight,  as  both  are  rich  in  protein  and  show  very  little 
waste  matter. 

Exercise. — Samples  of  By-Produds. — Get  from  local 
dealers  a'  collection  of  samples  of  all  the  concentrated  feeds 
they  have.  Put  these  in  small  bottles  and  label  them.  Write 
to  the  manufacturers  for  samples  of  the  cottonseed  products, 


Fio.  210. —  A.  Beef  cattle  are  fattened  with  corn,  fed  in  large,  flat  troughs. 
(Experiment  Station,  Kans.) 

B  Calves  in  pasture.  They  are  temporarily  put  in  stanchions  when  fed 
with  skim  milk  and  ground  feed.     (Experiment  Station,  Kans.) 


corn  products,  and  the  linseed  products.  Local  dealers  will 
give  you  the  addresses  or  get  the  samples  for  you.  Get  the 
names  of  feeds  from  the  Appendix  in  making  up  the  list  for 
the  school  collection  of  samples. 

The  Principles  of  Stock  Feeding. — The  feeding  of  animals 
to  obtain  the  best  results  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems 
of  the  farmer  or  stockman.  It  involves  a  knowledge  of  the 
feeds  used,  how  to  properly  balance  the  nutrients  in  the  daily 


316  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

feed,  the  best  ways  of  feeding  these  (Figs.  210  and  211), 
the  needs  of  each  class  of  animals,  and  a  study  of  individual 
differences  between  animals  of  the  same  kind. 

Digestibility. — There  are  several  factors  which  influence 
the  digestibiUty  of  feeds.  (1)  The  less  fiber  present  the 
easier  they  are  to  digest.  (2)  Concentrated  feeds  digest 
more  perfectly  than  others.  (3)  Soft  seed  coats  allow  seeds 
to  digest  better  than  those  with  hard  shells,  if  swallowed 
whole.  (4)  Digestion  is  aided  by  the  grinding  and  crushing 
of  feeds.  (5)  The  early  cutting  of  fodder  and  hay  will  aid. 
(6)  If  well  cured  and  stored  the  feeds  are  more  completely 
digested.  (7)  The  kind  or  breed  of  animal  using  the  feed  has 
an  influence.  (8)  Likewise  the  individuality  and  age  of  the 
animal  have  their  influence. 


Fig.  211. — Outdoor  feed -racks  used  for  feeding  flocks  on  the  range. 

Relation  of  Feed  to  Purpose. — ^We  have  already  learned 
that  we  must  feed  not  only  to  maintain  the  weight  and  heat 
of  the  animal,  but  also  to  produce  certain  animal  products 
or  work.  There  are  many  kinds  of  products.  The  kind 
and  amount  of  feed  must  be  suited  to  the  special  purpose. 
The  feeds  must  be  rich  in  protein  when  the  products 
desired  contain  much  protein.  Milk,  eggs,  lean  meat,  and 
wool  are  such  products.  The  animal  cannot  produce  anything 
containing  protein  without  the  use  of  protein  in  the  feed. 

When  the  purposes  are  to  build  up  fat  or  merely  to 
maintain  the  body  heat  and  weight,  very  little  protein  is 
required  in   the  feed.     If  too  much  protein  is  fed  to  an 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  317 

animal  when  not  yielding  some  protein-bearing  product, 
much  of  it  is  wasted,  and  a  portion  of  it  may  be  transformed 
into  fat.  In  the  simple  maintenance  of  life,  carbohydrates 
and  fat  are  largely  fed.  They  produce  the  necessary  heat 
and  energy  for  such  a  purpose.  For  this  reason  much  rough- 
age is  fed  to  animals  not  at  work  in  the  winter  time.  Timothy 
hay,  straw  and  stalks,  with  perhaps  a  little  corn  grain,  are 
enough  for  the  simple  maintenance  of  cattle  and  horses. 
For  a  gain  in  fat  these  same  feeds  are  used  in  larger  quan- 
tities.   Very  little  protein  is  then  needed. 

In  the  building  of  bone,  muscle,  and  other  animal  tissues, 
as  in  the  growth  of  young  animals,  considerable  amounts 
of  protein  and  mineral  matter  are  used  by  the  body.  It  is 
then  necessary  to  use  in  the  daily  ration  those  feeds  that 
have  been  mentioned  as  being  rich  in  protein. 

Feeding  Young  Animals. — ^When  a  stockman  desires  a 
profit  from  the  increase  in  the  gain  in  weight  he  will  feed 
young  animals  instead  of  old  ones.  Their  natural  growth  is 
a  factor  in  his  favor.  Young  animals  bring  better  prices  in 
the  markets.  The  thoughtful  farmer  will  fatten  lambs  and 
pigs  rather  than  old  sheep  and  hogs.  The  practice  of 
fattening  hahy  heef  is  now  more  common  than  the  old  way 
of  keeping  beef  cattle  for  several  years. 

Feeding  Standards. — Scientific  men  have  carefully  figured 
the  exact  amounts  of  each  nutrient  required  by  the  animal's 
body.  The  results  of  their  work  are  called  feeding  standards. 
Wolff  and  Lehmann  are  two  German  experimenters  who  have 
published  standards  for  stockmen  to  follow.  There  are  fixed 
standards  for  each  kind  of  animal  and  for  each  purpose  of 
feeding.  For  example,  a  thousand-pound  cow  giving  twenty- 
two  pounds  (about  eleven  quarts)  of  milk  daily  is  to  be  given 
such  an  amount  of  feed  as  to  equal  29  pounds  of  dry  matter, 
2.5  protein,  14.1  carbohydrates  and  fat  combined.  The 
feeding  standards  commonly  used  are  given  in  the  Appendix. 
In  order  to  obtain  the  proper  amounts  of  each  of  the  nutrients 


318  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

to  meet  the  standards  it  is  often  necessary  for  the  farmer  to 
sell  some  grain,  such  as  corn,  and  to  pm-chase  others  of  dif- 
ferent composition. 

Balanced  Rations. — ^When  the  nutrients  are  in  the  proper 
amounts  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  feeding  standard 
the  ration  is  said  to  be  a  balanced  ration.  If  they  are  not  in 
the  right  proportion  it  is  called  unbalanced.  Very  few  natural 
feeds  conform  closely  to  the  standards  given  for  the  various 
purposes  of  feeding.  They  must  be  combined  with  other 
feeds  in  such  a  way  as  to  balance  the  daily  ration. 

Nutritive  Ratios. — The  amount  of  protein  in  any  feed 
compared  with  the  other  nutrients  is  called  the  nutritive 
ratio.  For  example,  there  are  about  three  pounds  of  protein 
and  six  of  other  nutrients  in  one  hundred  pounds  of  skim 
milk.  Dividing  the  six  by  three  (6-^-3  =  2)  the  ratio  is  found 
to  be  two.  It  is  expressed  thus — 1 :  2.  The  nutritive  ratios 
are  given  in  the  feeding  table  in  the  Appendix. 

In  calculating  these  ratios  the  fat  is  not  added  directly 
to  the  carbohydrates,  but  it  is  first  multipUed  by  two  and 
one-fourth  and  then  added.  This  is  done  for  the  reason  that 
fat  in  any  feed  is  two  and  one-fourth  times  as  valuable  as 
carbohydrate  in  the  producing  of  heat  and  fat. 

To  make  this  clear,  the  ratio  for  alfalfa  hay  may  be 
figured.  The  digestible  nutrients  in  one  hundred  pounds  of 
alfalfa  are :  1.2  pounds  of  fat,  39 . 6  pounds  of  carbohydrates, 
and  11  pounds  of  protein. 

1.2X2^=2.7  (fat  equivalent  to  c.h.) . 

2 . 7  +  39 . 6  =  42 . 3  (total  nutrients  not  protein) . 

42 . 3  -^  1 1  =  3 .  84  (ratio,  expressed  1 : 3 .  84) . 

Comparison  of  Clover  with  the  Standard. — Red  clover 
hay  is  very  nearly  a  balanced  feed  for  dairy  cows  giving 
twenty-two  pounds  of  milk  daily.  It  comes  as  near  the  feed- 
ing standard  for  such  a  purpose  as  any  one  feed  can  without 
mixing  with  other  feeds.     Feeding  a  great  amount  of  any 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  319 

one  feed  is  not  advisable,  as  all  animals  want  a  little  variety. 

Dry  T>^^+^;„  C.  H.         Nutritive 

Matter        Protein       and  Fat  Ratio 

Standard  for  1000-lb.  cow 

giving  22  lbs.  milk 29.  2.5  14.1  1:5.6 

Nutrients  in   35  lbs.  red 

clover  hay 29.64        2.38        13.86        1:5.8 

Thirty-five  pounds  of  clover  hay  give  a  little  too  much 
dry  matter  and  not  quite  enough  of  either  class  of  nutrients. 
The  ratio  is  a  little  too  wide.  A  ratio  that  is  greater  than 
that  given  in  the  standard  is  said  to  be  too  wide;  if  too  small 
it  is  too  narrow.  Alfalfa  hay  has  too  narrow  a  ratio  (1:3.8) 
for  dairy  cows  when  fed  alone.  Corn  with  cobs  (1:15.1) 
is  too  wide  for  this  purpose.  The  two  can  be  combined  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  a  ration  very  close  to  the  standard, 
as  shown  below: 

Dry        Pr«to;«  C.  H.  Nutritive 

Matter      Protein         ^nd  Fat  Ratio 

21  lbs.  alfalfa  hay 19.65        2.46  9.05 

10  lbs.  corn-and-cob  meal  8.49  .44  6.55 

Total 28.14        2.90  15.70  1:5.41 

Standard 29.  2.5  14.1  1:5.56 

It  will  be  seen  that  if  the  dairyman  feeds  twenty-one 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  and  ten  pounds  of  corn-and-cob  meal 
the  ration  is  close  to  the  standard;  both  colmnns  of  nutrients 
are  a  little  too  high,  but  the  dry  matter  is  a  little  under  the 
standard.  It  should  be  remembered  that  these  two  feeds  are 
both  easily  produced  on  the  farm  and  no  money  is  then  paid 
out  for  feed. 

What  Stock  Like. — It  is  necessary  that  a  feeder  select 
or  provide  feeds  that  are  liked  by  the  stock.  If  certain 
feeds  are  not  palatable  to  the  animals,  the  best  results  are 
not  secured.  It  is  also  necessary  to  avoid  too  much  indi- 
gestible matter.  The  coarser  forms  of  roughage,  such  as  corn 
fodder,  should  be  run  through  a  cutter,  and  the  hard  grains 
are  liked  better  when  they  are  ground.  Animals  which  chew 
their  cud,  called  ruminating  animals,  as  the  cow  and  sheep, 
Uke  more  roughage  than  hogs.    All  animals  Hke  a  change 


320  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

of  feed,  and  a  little  variety  in  the  ration.  It  should  be 
changed  gradually  and  not  all  at  once. 

Exercise. ^ — Palatability  of  Feeds. — Let  the  older  pupils 
report  as  to  which  of  the  following  feeds  are  liked  best  by 
stock:  clover,  alfalfa  or  timothy  hay  by  cows;  turnips  or  car- 
rots by  horses;  bright  clean  corn  or  mouldy  corn  by  horses. 

Problems. — 1.  What  is  the  cost  of  protein  per  pound  in 
clover  hay  containing  6  per  cent  protein  when  the  hay  is 
valued  at  $10  per  ton? 

2.  What  is  the  cost  of  protein  in  timothy  hay  contain- 
ing 3  per  cent  protein  when  the  hay  is  worth  $18  per  ton? 

3.  Which  hay  is  better  for  dairy  cows? 

Buying  Feeds. — ^A  farmer  often  finds  it  very  advisable 
to  sell  some  of  the  wheat  or  other  grain  and  buy  instead 
mill  feeds  and  other  by-products.  It  is  well  to  select  those 
mill  feeds  which  are  rich  in  protein  to  mix  with  the  farm 
roughage  and  corn.  This  will  make  it  easier  to  balance  the 
rations  for  the  different  kinds  of  stock. 

Some  roughage  may  be  sold  or  exchanged  for  the  desired 
concentrates.  Timothy  hay  brings  a  good  price  in  the  mar- 
kets, but  is  very  poor  form  of  roughage  hay  to  keep  on  the 
farm  to  feed  to  dairy  cows.  Clover  hay  is  far  better  for  cows 
and  yet  the  market  price  is  much  lower. 

In  deciding  which  feeds  to  purchase  it  is  well  to  decide  the 
cost  per  pound  of  protein  contained  in  each  feed  considered. 

Problem. — Figure  the  cost  per  pound  of  protein  in  each 
of  the  following  concentrates  when  the  prices  per  ton  are 
as  follows:  Cottonseed  meal,  $33;  linseed  meal,  old  proc- 
ess, $32;  brewers'  grains,  dry,  $27;  wheat  bran,  $25;  wheat 
middlings,  $30;  cornmeal,  $32.  (See  the  protein  contents 
Table  of  Feeds  in  the  Appendix.) 

Fertilizing  value  of  feeds  is  a  thing  to  be  considered  in  all 
feeds.  When  farmers  buy  feeds  they  may  well  consider  that 
they  are  buying  fertility  for  the  farm.  It  is  usually  better 
to  buy  mill  feeds  for  farm  stock  than  to  buy  commercial 
fertilizers.     Such  feeds  are  often  rich  in  available  organic 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  321 

nitrogen ;  and  the  minerals,  phosphate  and  potash,  are  more 
or  less  abundant.  How  much  of  this  fertility  reaches  the 
soil  will  always  depend  upon  the  care  and  use  of  the  manure 
from  the  barns. 

REVIEW 

1.  Of  what  is  the  solid  part  of  an  animal's  body  composed  ? 

2.  Tell  about  how  much  of  the  body  is  water, 

3.  Name  three  or  four  common  forms  of  protein. 

4 .  Give  the  four  classes  of  nutrients  needed  by  animals,  besides  water. 

5.  Name  some  of  the  common  feeds  rich  in  protein. 

6.  What  substances  are  included  by  the  group  termed  "carbohy- 
drates?" 

7.  Name  some  feeds  rich  in  starch. 

8.  Mention  three  different  kinds  of  sugar  and  the  sources  of  each. 

9.  Name  the  five  animal  processes  necessary  in  changing  feed  to 
animal  tissue. 

10.  Give  examples  of  feeds  classed  as  roughage. 

11.  Give  several  examples  of  feeds  classed  as  concentrates. 

12.  Give  some  examples  of  crops  suitable  for  being  fed  green  in 
summer  when  pastures  are  poor. 

13.  Name  three  feeds  suitable  for  winter  succulence. 

14.  How  is  ensilage  made  ?    What  is  a  silo  ? 

15.  Tell  what  you  can  about  bran;  middlings. 

16.  Discuss  the  character  of  gluten  meal.    From  what  is  it  made  ? 

17.  Tell  how  cottonseed  meal  is  made. 

18.  Distinguish  between  "old  process"  and  "new  process"  oil  meal. 
Which  is  richer  in  oil  ? 

19.  Tell  what  things  influence  the  digestibihty  of  feeds. 

20.  Give  two  objects  of  feeding. 

21.  What  is  the  sole  source  of  an  animal's  protein  ? 

22.  Name  the  classes  of  nutrients  that  may  cause  the  formation  of 
fat  in  the  animal  body. 

23.  Why  is  it  more  profitable  to  feed  young  animals  than  old  ones 
if  we  are  to  sell  them  by  weight  ? 

24.  Give  the  weights  of  the  several  nutrients  for  a  1000-pound  cow 
giving  milk. 

25.  Of  what  use  are  feeding  standards  ? 

26.  What  is  meant  by  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  to  6  ? 

27.  Give  the  meaning  of  wide  ratio  and  of  narrow  ratio. 

28.  Why  use  feeds  which  animals  crave,  rather  than  feeds  they  disUke ? 

29.  Why  do  farmers  need  to  buy  mill  feeds  to  use  with  farm  feeds? 

30.  Why  is  it  better  to  buy  mill  feeds  than  it  is  to  buy  commercial 
f  ertihzers  ? 

References. — U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  22,  The  Feeding  of  Farm 
Animals;  36,  Cottonseed  and  Its  Products;  49,  Sheep  Feeding;  142, 
IMnciples  of  Nutrition  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food;  170,  Principles  of 
Horse  Feeding;  295,  Potatoes  and  Other  Root  Crops  as  Food;  298, 
Food  Value  of  Com  and  Com  Products;  346,  The  Computation  of 
Rations  for  Farm  Animals  by  the  Use  of  Energy  Values;  411,  Feeding 
Hogs  in  the  South;  441,  Japan  Clover;  451,  Clover,  pp.  7-10;  457,  A 
Reinforced  Brick  Silo,  pp.  23-24. 
21 


PART  III. 
ANIMAL  PRODUCTS. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
CATTLE    PRODUCTS. 

The  most  important  products  from  cattle  are  beef,  veal, 
milk,  cream,  butter,  and  cheese.  Other  minor  products  and 
by-products  are  skim  milk,  buttermilk,  whey,  hides  for 
leather,  hair  for  plaster,  hoofs  and  horns  for  glue,  blood  and 
bones  and  other  parts  for  fertilizers.  Small  useful  articles, 
as  buttons,  knife  handles,  and  others  are  made  from  bones 
and  horns. 

Cuts  of  Beef. — The  beef  type  of  cattle  bring  the  highest 
prices  per  pound.  This  is  true  when  sold  either  by  live  weight 
or  as  dressed  meat.  This  type  also  gives  a  higher  percentage 
of  dressed  beef  than  the  carcass  of  the  dairy  animal.  The 
•carcass  of  the  beef  animal  has  a  better  percentage  of  weight 
in  the  high-priced  cuts  of  meat  than  the  others.  The  quality 
of  meat  is  far  better  in  an  animal  bred  for  beef  than  in  a  dairy 
cow.  Figure  212  gives  the  names  of  the  different  cuts  of  beef 
as  used  by  butchers  and  buyers.  The  retail  prices  given  are 
relative,  not  actual. 

Products  of  the  Dairy. — In  the  wild  or  primitive  condition 
cows  gave  milk  only  for  their  calves.  They  have  since 
acquired  the  character  of  giving  much  more  than  that,  and 
now  milk  has  become  a  standard  article  of  food  for  man. 

Milk  as  Food. — Milk  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  forms 
of  food  used  by  human  beings.     It  is  easily  digested  and 
contains  the  nutrients  in  proper  proportion  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  body. 
322 


CATTLE  PRODUCTS 


323 


In  100  pounds  of  milk  these  parts  are  in  about  this  pro- 
portion: 

Water 87 .    pounds 

Fat 4 .    pounds 

Casein  and  albumen  (protein) 3.3  pounds 

Sugar  (carbohydrates) 5 .    pounds 

Mineral  matter 0.7  pounds 

Total 100.    pounds 

Fats  in  Milk  are  of  several  kinds,  which  fall  into  three 
groups:  (1)  The  volatile  or  easily  evaporated  fats.  (2)  The 
fats    that    are    in    liquid   form    at   ordinary  temperature. 


Fig.  212. — ^The  cuts  of  a  beef  animal,  giving  tl 


prirp?  anrl  weights. 


(3)  The  fats  that  are  in  solid  form  at  ordinary  temperatiu-e. 
Some  of  the  volatile  fats  may  be  allowed  to  escape  by  airing 
the  milk  or  cream.  If  they  are  not  thus  removed  they  soon 
break  up  into  forms  which  give  bitter  flavors  to  the  milk  or 
cream.  The  airing  process  should  be  done  in  a  clean  room 
where  the  air  is  pure  and  free  from  dust. 

The  fats  in  milk  are'  lighter  than  the  other  parts  and 
readily  rise  to  the  top;  but  in  so  doing  they  take  with  them 
certain  other  parts  which  compose  the  cream. 

Casein  is  the  chief  protein  in  milk.  It  is  the  important 
ingredient  found  in  cheese,  which  is  famiUar  to  all.    There 


324  PRODUCTIVE  FARlVnNG 

is  always  a  little  albumen  present.  It  is  similar  to  the  white 
of  raw  egg.  The  casein  is  the  main  tissue-forming  part  of 
the  milk  when  used  as  food. 

Milk  sugar  is  the  heat-producing  part  of  milk  when  used 
as  food.  When  milk  sours  it  is  due  to  the  action  of  bacteria 
which  changes  the  sugar  into  an  acid,  called  lactic  acid. 

The  mineral  matter  in  milk  is  made  up  of  the  same  minerals 
required  by  the  bones  and  other  body  tissues.  They  are 
very  beneficial  when  milk  is  used  as  human  food.  When 
milk  is  pasteurized  by  heating,  it  loses  much  of  the  mineral 
value  and  is  no  longer  a  suitable  food  for  growing  children. 
The  bones  are  apt  to  be  too  soft  when  such  milk  is  used 
regularly. 

Composition  Varies  Naturally. — The  milk  from  dairy 
animals  varies  in  its  composition  from  several  causes.  The 
main  factors  are  given  below : 

1.  Breed  of  animal;  as  Jerseys  have  more  fat  in  the  milk 
than  Holsteins. 

2.  Period  of  lactation;  the  milk  being  richer  in  fat  just 
before  a  cow  dries  up. 

3.  Different  parts  of  same  milking;  the  first  is  poor  in 
fat,  the  last  is  rich. 

4.  Kinds  of  feed;  this  influences  quantity  of  milk  chiefly; 
but  the  character  of  butter  fat  is  influenced  by  feed;  for 
example,  cottonseed  meal  makes  the  fat  harder  than  does 
linseed  meal. 

Exercise. — Difference  in  Milk. — Have  one  of  the  pupils 
or  a  farmer  save  in  two  separate  bottles  some  of  the  first 
of  the  morning's  milking  and  some  of  the  strippings  from 
the  same  cow.  One-fourth  pint  of  each  will  be  enough. 
These  two  bottles  may  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  for  a  day 
until  the  cream  has  all  risen.  The  difference  will  then  be 
shown  by  measuring  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  cream  in 
each  bottle.  It  is  not  a  bad  plan  to  use  the  first  pint  of  each 
milking  for  pigs  or  calves  instead  of  for  human  food. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTS  325 

Exercise. — Bad  Flavor  in  Milk. — Some  farmer's  son 
may  be  able  to  tell  the  class  some  of  his  own  experience  in 
getting  bitter  milk  when  cows  have  been  in  weedy  pastures 
when  the  grass  is  poor. 

Cabbages,  wet  brewers'  grains,  and  spoiled  ensilage  may 
flavor  the  milk  if  fed  only  a  few  hours  before  milking.  To 
avoid  such  bad  effects  from  those  feeds,  if  used  at  all,  they 
should  be  fed  to  the  cows  when  their  udders  are  empty, 
just  after  milking. 

Exercise. — Composition  of  Milk. — Prepare  a  set  of  bot- 
tles containing  the  proper  amounts  of  different  materials  to 
show  approximately  the  composition  of  one  pint  of  milk. 
Preserve  these  with  a  few  drops  of  formalin  in  each.  tJse 
the  following: 

14  oz.  water  in  a  pint  bottle. 

K  oz.  melted  butter  in  %  oz.  vial. 

^  oz.  cheese  (protein)  in  %  oz.  vial. 

y%  oz.  milk  sugar  in  1  oz.  bottle. 

y^  oz.  salt  (mineral  matter)  in  smallest  vial. 

These  should  be  neatly  labelled  and  kept  for  future  reference. 
The  set  will  resemble  Figure  208. 

Difficulty  in  Obtaining  Pure  Milk. — Healthy  milk  cows 
naturally  produce  a  pure  product,  but  much  of  the  milk 
used  for  food  is  not  as  pure  as  it  should  be.  There  are  many 
chances  for  the  milk  to  become  dirty  or  infested  with  bac- 
teria before  it  is  used.  Careless  and  improper  methods  in 
barns  or  on  the  part  of  those  who  handle  the  milk  before  and 
after  it  reaches  the  home  are  the  chief  causes  of  impure  milk. 
Milk  may  be  kept  pure  and  free  from  harmful  contamination. 
Poor  and  unclean  milk  should  not  be  used  for  food. 

Bacteria  in  Milk. — The  bacteria  in  milk  are  classed  as 
either  good  or  bad.  Those  which  cause  milk  to  som-  are 
useful  when  the  milk  or  cream  is  to  be  used  for  making 
butter  or  cheese.     There  are  many  bad  forms  of  bacteria 


326 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


which  will  produce  bad  flavors  in  milk  and  its  products. 
Milk  is  a  substance  very  favorable  to  the  rapid  development 
of  both  classes  of  bacteria.  These  multiply  very  rapidly 
if  the  milk  is  kept  warm.  There  are  many  ways  in  which 
bacteria  find  their  way  into  milk.  Some  of  these  are  from 
the  coats  or  hairs  of  the  cows,  from  the  dirty  hands  and 
clothing  of  milkers,  from  flies  that  fall  in,  from  dirty  pails, 
cans,  strainers,  bottles  or  other  utensils,  from  dust  or  other  im- 
purities in  the  air  of  barns,  milk-rooms,  and  homes  (Fig.  213). 


Fig.  213  A 


Fig. 213  B. 


Fig.  213  A. — Bad  construction.     DiflScult  to  keep  clean.    (Animal  Industry.) 
Fig.  213  B. — Good  construction.     Smooth  floor,  walls,  and  ceiling,  plenty  of 
Ugbt,  easy  to  keep  clean.     (Animal  Industry.) 


Pure  Milk. — Milk  of  a  healthy  cow  contains  no  germs 
while  forming  in  the  udder.  They  get  into  the  milk  in  the 
ways  mentioned  in  the  last  paragraph.  By  pure  milk  is 
meant  the  properly-handled  product  of  healthy  cows. 

To  keep  dirt  and  bacteria  out  of  the  milk  the  barns  should 
be  kept  clean.  This  is  made  possible  only  by  having  the 
floors,  walls,  and  ceilings  smooth  and  tight  (Fig.  214). 

Direct  sunlight  through  large  south  windows  will  help 
to  destroy  many  bacteria  in  barns  (Fig.  214). 

The  air  must  be  free  from  dust  at  the  time  of  milking. 
Feeding  should  be  done  after  milking  instead  of  before. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTS 


327 


The  barn  should  be  properly  ventilated  to  remove  bad 
odors,  bad  air,  dust  particles,  and  bacteria.  The  ventilation 
must  be  ample  and  yet  free  from  drafts  of  air.  There  are 
two  good  systems  in  use.  One  consists  of  muslin  cloth 
screens  placed  in  several  of  the  open  windows.  The  other 
is  the  King  ventilation  system,  which  draws  the  foul  air  out 
from  near  the  floor,  through  a  long  shaft  or  chimney  (Fig. 
215).  This  is  the  best  system  for  winter  ventilation  of  build- 
ings. 


Fig.  214. — A  small  but  clean  dairy  bam.     (Animal  Industry.) 


The  cows  must  be  clean  if  pure  milk  is  to  be  produced  for 
food.  Milk  always  becomes  dirty  if  the  cows  are  dirty. 
The  udders  and  surrounding  parts  should  be  washed  if 
filthy;  and  the  dust  and  loose  hairs  must  be  removed  just 
before  milking,  by  the  use  of  a  damp  cloth. 

The  milker  must  be  healthy,  and  must  have  clean  hands 
and  clean  clothes. 

Milk  pails  should  have  small  tops  because  they  catch 
less  dirt.  The  pails  with  good  hoods  shown  in  Fig.  216  will 
keep  out  the  most  dirt. 

All  milk  utensils  must  be  washed  well  and  then  always 


328 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


scalded  thoroughly  with  boiling  water  to  kill  the  bacteria. 
This  is  called  sterilizing  them. 


Fig.  215. — King  system  of  ventilation  for  dairy  barns.  The  air  outlet  should 
start  near  the  floor  and  extend  through  the  roof.  The  inlet  for  air  into  the  stable 
is  near  the  ceiling,  but  should  start  outside  well  above  the  ground.  Windows  are 
for  light,  not  for  ventilation,  when  the  King  system  is  in  use. 


Fig.  216. — Five  styles  of  milk  pails,  intended  to  reduce  the  amount  of  dirt  in 
milk  which  falls  in  from  cows  and  from  milkers.  Which  do  you  consider  the  best 
form  for  this  purpose? 


Cooling  and  Airing. — As  soon  as  milk  is  drawn  from  the 
udder  it  should  be  taken  to  a  clean  place  and  thoroughly 
aired  and  cooled.    The  temperature  should  be  lowered  quickly 


CATTLE  PRODUCTS 


329 


to  50°  F.  or  below.     This  will  check  the  multiplication  of 
bacteria  that  would  spoil  the  milk  (Figs.  217,  218). 

Exercise. — Teinyerature  and  Souring. — Get  two  bottles 
of  milk,  both  fresh.  Set  one  in  a  cool  place  where  it  will  not 
quite  freeze.  Set  the  other  in  a  warm  room.  Notice  the 
difference  in  time  it  will  take  to  sour  the  two  bottles  of  milk. 
These  samples  may  be  tasted  for  sourness  and  also  tested 
with  blue  litmus  paper. 


Fia.  218. 


Fio.  217. — Milk  bottles  with  crushed  ice  ia  shipping  box. 
Fig.  218. — Delivery  of  milk  to  city  houses. 


Bottling  Milk  and  Cream. — Milk  and  cream  to  be  deliv- 
ered directly  to  the  users  should  be  put  into  sterilized  bottles, 
which  are  kept  covered  and  cold  until  the  milk  is  used  in 
the  home.  The  old  way  of  delivering  milk  from  cans  which 
were  opened  in  the  streets  to  take  out  the  milk  for  each  cus- 
tomer, allowed  dust  and  all  kinds  of  city  bacteria  to  get  into 
the  milk.  Simple  machines  are  used  by  which  milk  and 
cream  may  be  put  into  bottles  very  rapidly  with  httle  hand- 
ling (Fig.  219). 

Special  Forms  of  Market  Milk. — There  are  laws  or  certain 
regulations  in  many  places  which  require  that  milk  shall  be 
of  a  certain  quality  or  standard. 


330  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Legfa?  milk  usually  containsthree  percent  of  fat  andnot  less 
than  twelve  per  cent  of  total  solids,  which  includes  every- 
thing but  the  water.  This  is  the  most  common  form  of  milk 
delivered  to  consumers,  and  to  butter  and  cheese  factories. 

Milk  is  also  standardized  by  certain  producers  of  milk  for 
special  markets.  A  certain  dairyman  may  produce  milk  for 
his  customers  which  will  always  have  any  desired  percentage 
of  butter  fat.  This  is  done  by  mixing  rich  milk  or  cream  with 
poor  milk  in  such  amounts  as  to  give  the  desired  results. 


Fig.  219. — ^Milk  bottled  for  the  retail  market.     The  machine  at  the  left  fills  eight 
bottles  at  once  and  is  then  moved  to  the  next  row. 

Certified  milk  is  that  which  meets  the  requirements  of 
milk  commissioners,  as  to  purity  and  safety.  The  barns, 
milk-rooms,  methods  of  handling  and  delivering  are  all 
inspected  by  experts,  and  certificates  are  issued  to  all  dairy- 
men who  meet  the  requirements  of  the  milk  commissioner. 

Condensed  milk  is  now  extensively  canned  and  shipped 
for  use  in  many  places.  Much  of  the  water  is  removed  by 
evaporation.  Sometimes  sugar  is  added.  It  will  keep  a  long 
time  while  sealed,  and  is  used  by  armies  in  the  field,  on  board 
ships  at  sea,  in  mining  camps,  and  is  becoming  more  popular 
in  cities. 

Powdered  milk  is  a  newer  and  less  common  form  of  market 
milk.    Some  of  the  fat  is  usually  first  removed,  and  then  the 


CATTLE  PRODUCTS  331 

milk  is  evaporated  to  dryness  without  burning.    Before  being 
used  it  is  mixed  with  water. 

Modified  milk  is  prepared  for  use  of  infants  and  invalids, 
by  increasing  or  decreasing  one  or  more  of  the  parts  of  the 
milk,  to  suit  special  cases. 

Fermented  milk  and  ripened  milk  are  made  from  skim 
milk  or  from  whole  milk.  The  proper  bacteria  are  added  to 
cause  the  souring  and  thickening  of  the  milk,  as  cream  is 
ripened  for  churning.  When  ready  for  use  it  is  somewhat 
similar  to  buttermilk. 

Creaming. — There  are  three  common  methods  of  obtain- 
ing the  cream  from  milk.  (1)  The  shallow  pan  method  is 
the  oldest  and  most  conunon.  (2)  The  deep  can  method  is 
sometimes  used  when  much  milk  is  to  be  handled.  The 
large  cans  of  milk  are  kept  in  cold  water  until  the  cream 
rises.  The  skim  milk  is  drawn  off  through  a  faucet  at  the 
bottom.  (3)  The  modern  centrifugal  bowl  separator  is  the 
only  quick  way  of  removing  the  cream  from  milk  (Figs. 
220,  221).  In  all  types  of  these  machines  the  milk  flows  into 
a  rapidly  whirling  metal  bowl.  The  speed  is  very  great, 
and  the  skim  milk,  being  heavier,  is  thrown  to  the  outer  edge 
and  runs  out.  The  cream  overflows  near  the  centre  of  the 
bowl. 

Ripening  Cream  for  Churning. — ^As  soon  as  cream  is 
separated  from  the  milk  it  must  be  cooled  and  kept  cold 
until  about  twelve  hours  before  it  is  to  be  churned  into 
butter.  It  is  then  warmed  to  a  temperature  at  which  the 
bacteria  will  grow  to  make  it  sour.  This  may  be  60°  to 
75°  F.  It  will  sour  faster  when  warmer,  but  will  not  make  so 
good  butter.  At  churning  time  the  temperature  should  be 
about  58°  in  the  summer  and  60°  or  62°  in  the  winter. 
Ripened  cream  should  be  slightly  sour  to  the  taste  and  pour 
as  a  thick,  smooth,  glossy  liquid,  free  from  lumps  or  curds. 
When  ready  to  churn,  it  should  be  poured  through  a  strainer 
to  remove  any  curds  that  might  be  present. 


332 


PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 


Steps  in  Churning. — 1.  Put  the  cream  into  the  churn 
and  add  a  Httle  vegetable  butter-color. 

2.  Operate  the  churn  steadily  and  slowly  to  cause  the 
globules  to  be  affected  by  the  dashing  movement. 

3.  Stop  the  churning  when  the  granules  are  the  size  of 
large  grains  of  wheat  or  peas. 

4.  Strain  the  buttermilk  out,  leaving  the  butter  in  the 
churn  as  loose  and  open  as  possible. 


Fig.  220. 


Fig 


Fig.  220. — A  modem  hand  separator.     Cream  separators  of  small  size  are  used 
on  dairy  farms  where  cream  or  butter  is  sold. 

Fig.  221. — School  pupils  learning  to  operate  a  cream  separator.     (A.  E.) 


5.  Wash  the  butter  with  cold  water  twice,  by  pouring 
it  on  and  draining  it  off.  Use  as  much  cold  water  each  time 
as  half  the  amount  of  the  buttermilk. 

6.  Sprinkle  over  the  loose  butter  enough  salt  to  suit  the 
taste.  One  ounce  of  salt  to  a  pound  of  butter  suits  the  usual 
market. 

7.  Work  the  butter  in  large  masses,  but  not  enough  to 
give  it  a  smeared  or  greasy  appearance. 

8.  Mold  or  pack  to  suit  the  market  requirements,  as  in 
pound  molds  covered  with  parchment  paper. 


CATTLE  TRODUCTS  333 

Cheese. — ^Whole  milk  cheese  is  very  nutritious  as  a  food 
and  the  use  of  it  has  greatly  increased  in  recent  years.  It 
is  rich  in  both  casein  and  fat.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
cheese  sold  in  the  markets,  but  the  steps  in  making  the  vari- 
ous kinds  are  similar.  These  steps  are:  (1)  The  coagulation 
of  the  casein,  with  or  without  a  special  material,  called 
rennet;  (2)  the  removal  of  the  whey;  (3)  salting;  (4)  pressing; 
and  (5)  ripening. 

Dairy  Records. — Records  should  be  kept  of  the  milk 
produced  by  each  cow  so  that  the  owner  may  know  which 
ones  are  paying  best.  The  profits  from  each  cow  cannot  be 
determined  unless  a  record  is  kept  of  the  daily  flow  of  milk. 
If  the  milk  is  used  for  making  butter  or  cheese,  the  records 
should  then  also  show  the  richness  of  the  milk  from  each 
cow.  The  milk  of  each  cow  should  be  frequently  weighed 
and  a  sample  of  it  tested  for  butter  fat.  If  the  weighing 
is  done  one  day  each  week,  for  three  weeks  of  the  month,  an 
approximate  record  of  the  amount  of  milk  given  each  month 
may  be  easily  determined.  It  is  better  to  weigh  the  milk 
each  time  just  after  it  is  drawn  from  each  cow.  Samples  for 
testing  should  be  taken  after  the  milk  is  poured  into  another 
vessel,  as  this  mixes  the  milk,  and  a  truer  sample  is  obtained. 
The  samples  are  easily  preserved,  until  time  for  testing,  by 
the  use  of  special  poison  tablets  made  for  the  purpose.  Cows 
which  do  not  yield  good  profits  should  not  be  kept.  Many 
do  not  pay  their  board. 

Keeping  the  dairy  record  is  made  easy  by  having  a  good 
spring  balance  hanging  near  the  record  sheet  in  the  barn 
(Fig.  222). 

The  Babcock  Test. — The  method  of  testing  milk  for 
determining  the  amount  of  fat  was  devised  by  Dr.  S.  M. 
Babcock,  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.  It  is  very 
simple  and  gives  accurate  results.  A  set  of  the  apparatus 
used  in  this  test  is  shown  in  Fig.  223. 

Exercise. — Testing  Milk  and  Cream. — Some  one  near 
the  school,  who  has  a  Babcock  test  outfit,  may  be  invited 


334  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

to  bring  it  before  the  class  and  give  a  lesson  in  testing  sam- 
ples of  milk  and  cream.  Or  perhaps  it  will  be  as  well  for  the 
class  to  take  a  trip  to  a  near-by  creamery  and  observe  the 
operation.  If  possible  the  school  should  own  an  outfit. 
The  students  could  then  test  samples  of  milk  from  the  cows 
of  the  neighborhood. 

Exercise. — Skim  Milk  and  Buttermilk. — Samples  of  skim 
milk  from  two  or  more  separators  should  be  tested  to  deter- 


FiG.  222. — The  weight  of  each  cow's  milk  is  written  on  the  record  sheet. 

mine  which  one  removes  the  cream  the  best.  If  butter- 
milk is  tested,  this  will  tell  how  well  the  churning  has  removed 
the  butter. 

Principles  of  the  Babcock  Test. — The  testing  of  milk  by 
this  method  is  founded  on  the  fact  that  very  strong  acid  will 
dissolve  all  the  substances  in  the  milk  except  the  butter  fat. 
The  particles  of  fat  are  thus  set  free  from  the  rest.  As  the 
fat  is  the  lightest  part  of  the  milk,  it  will  rise  to  the  top. 
This  takes  place  in  a  few  minutes  if  the  bottles  of  milk  are 
placed  in  a  whirling  machine  (centrifugal).  In  other  words, 
the  heavier  parts  of  the  milk  are  thrown  to  the  bottom. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTS 


335 


In  making  the  test  a  definite,  or  measured,  amount  of 
milk  is  put  into  a  bottle  with  a  long,  narrow  neck  and  just 
enough  acid  is  mixed  with  this  to  set  free  the  fat.  After  the 
fat  is  brought  to  the  top  by  the  whirling  force,  some  hot  water 
is  added  to  fill  the  bottle  up  to  the  neck.  A  second  whirling 
brings  the  fat  above  this  water.  A  little  water  is  again  added 
to  float  the  fat  up  even  with  the  scale  on  the  neck  of  the 
bottle.  The  third  whirling  gathers  all  the  fat  together  in 
the  neck  of  the  bottle  so  that  the  length  of  the  column  of 


Fig.  223. — Glass-ware  and  machine  for  making  Babcock  test  for  butter  fat  ia 
milk,  cream,  and  skim  milk.     (Experiment  Station,  Wis.) 


the  fat  may  be  read  on  the  scale.  The  neck  must  have  been 
correctly  scaled,  to  give  the  result  in  percentage  of  the 
amount  of  milk  first  put  into  the  bottle.  Thus  if  the  fat 
fills  four  full  spaces  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  the  milk  is 
four  per  cent  fat. 

Details  of  the  Test. — Sampling. — Shake  or  otherwise 
mix  the  samples  to  be  tested  just  before  beginning  the  work. 
It  must  not  be  hot  nor  very  cold.  Measure  out  17.6  cc. 
(cubic  centimeters)  by  drawing  milk  into  the  long  pipette 
(Fig.  223,  P),  just  up  to  the  mark.  Suck  the  milk  into  the 
pipette  with  the  mouth;  put  a  finger  over  the  top  and  let 
enough  drip  out  until  the  top  is  exactly  even  with  the  mark. 


336  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Let  this  milk  flow  gently  down  the  long  neck  into  the 
test  bottle,  M.  Do  not  spill  any.  Blow  in  the  last  drop. 
The  steps  thus  far  are  the  most  particular  and  should  be 
practised  with  water  a  few  times  or  until  the  work  can  be 
done  well.  Always  make  the  test  in  duplicate  to  avoid 
error,  using  two  bottles. 

Adding  the  Acid  must  be  done  carefully.  Be  ready  to 
wash  up  any  spilled  acid  quickly,  as  its  burns  are  serious. 
Use  water  freely  and  add  soap  or  soda  if  needed.  The  acid 
is  measured  up  to  the  17.5  cc.  mark,  in  the  little  cylinder 
or  acid  measure,  A.  Pour  it  into  the  milk  sample  in  the  test 
bottle,  holding  the  bottle  in  a  slanting  position  to  let  the 
acid  pass  by  the  outgoing  air. 

Mixing  the  milk  and  acid  is  now  done  by  holding  the 
bottle  by  the  neck  and  giving  it  a  circular  motion  for  a  few 
minutes.  Do  not  point  the  mouth  towards  yourself  nor 
any  one  else.  Mix  until  the  contents  are  dark  colored 
throughout.    The  action  of  the  acid  makes  it  very  hot. 

Whirling. — Place  the  test  bottles  in  the  whirling  machine 
in  pairs,  directly  opposite  each  other,  to  perfectly  balance 
the  machine.  The  speed  to  run  the  machine  depends  on  its 
diameter  and  is  usually  marked  on  the  machine.  Run  it 
five  minutes.  Stop  and  add  hot  water  to  fill  each  test  bottle 
up  to  the  bottom  of  the  neck.  Whirl  two  minutes.  Add 
hot  water  to  bring  the  top  of  the  fat  nearly  to  the  top  of  the 
scale  (graduation)  on  the  neck.  Whirl  one  minute.  During 
all  the  whirling  and  the  reading  the  test  bottles  must  be 
kept  hot  by  putting  hot  water  into  the  machine  under  the 
bottles. 

Reading  the  Result. — Take  the  bottle  by  the  top  of  the 
neck  and  hold  the  scale  level  with  the  eye.  Read  the  marks 
at  the  extreme  top  and  bottom  of  the  fat.  The  difference 
between  these  is  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  sample.  For 
example,  if  the  bottom  reads  3 . 2  and  the  top  reads  7 . 4  the 
percentage  of  butter  fat  would  be  the  difference,  or  4,2. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTS  337 

This  percentage,  4.2,  of  fat  in  the  milk  would  mean  that 
there  are  4.2  pounds  of  fat  in  100  pounds  of  milk.  The 
glassware  must  be  kept  clean  so  that  the  test  and  the  reading 
will  be  accurate. 

Skim  Milk  and  Buttermilk  are  tested  in  special  bottles 
having  double  necks  (S,  Fig.  223) . 

Cream  is  tested  in  bottles  with  extra  large  necks  (C), 
because  there  is  so  much  fat  in  it.  The  sample  taken  is 
weighed  instead  of  measured. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  two  reasons  why  the  beef  type  of  animals  is  preferable 
for  beef. 

2.  Name  three  of  the  highest  priced  cuts  of  meat. 

3.  Why  is  milk  considered  a  complete  food  for  young  animals  ? 

4.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  composition  of  butter  fat. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  volatile  fat  ? 

6.  Why  should  volatile  fats  be  allowed  to  escape  from  milk  when 
freshly  drawn  from  the  cow? 

7.  What  per  cent  of  average  milk  is  water  ?  Name  the  other  sub- 
stances in  the  order  of  their  greatest  abundance. 

8.  What  are  the  usual  differences  in  composition  of  milk  drawn  at 
different  times  ? 

9.  At  which  part  of  the  milk  period  is  milk  the  richest  ? 

10.  Tell  of  the  influence  of  feed  on  the  character  of  butter  fat  in 
milk. 

11.  Tell  of  the  different  effects  of  good  and  bad  bacteria  in  milk. 

12.  How  can  clean  methods  in  barns  help  to  keep  bacteria  out  of 
milk 

13.  Mention  six  ways  in  which  bacteria  may  get  into  milk. 

14.  Describe  the  King  system  of  taking  foul  air  out  of  the  barn. 

15.  What  are  the  best  forms  of  milk  pails  ? 

16.  Tell  how  to  sterilize  milk  utensils. 

17.  Describe  the  conditions  for  ripening  milk. 

18.  Give  the  steps  in  making  good  butter. 

19.  Why  should  dairymen  keep  records  of  individual  cows? 

20.  How  is  this  done  ?  Why  should  the  milk  of  each  cow  be  tested  ? 

21.  Of  what  use  is  the  Babcock  test  outfit  ? 

References.— U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletins:  29,  Souring  and  Other 
Changes  in  Milk;  42,  Facts  About  Milk;  74,  Milk  as  Food;  131,  House- 
hold Tests  for  Detection  of  Oleomargarine  and  Renovated  Butter; 
166,  Cheese  Making  on  the  Farm;  201,  Cream  Separators  on  Westerr 
Farms;  241,  Butter  Making  on  the  Farm;  348,  Bacteria  in  Milk ;  363, 
The  Use  of  Milk  as  Food;  413,  Care  of  Milk  and  Its  Use  in  the  Home; 
457,  Production  of  Sanitary  Milk,  p.  20,  Lacto,  A  New  and  Healthful 
Frozen  Dairy  Product,  p.  21. 

22 


PART  IV. 
FARM  MANAGEMENT. 


CHAPTER   XXX. 
THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING. 

Changes  in  Farming. — Young  men  and,  indeed,  older 
people  who  live  in  the  city  of  to-day  scarcely  realize  the 
great  change  that  is  taking  place  in  American  country  life 
and  the  farmer's  business.  In  fact,  so  many  new  principles 
are  being  introduced  that  persons  who  have  been  off  the 
farm  only  a  few  years  have  no  idea  of  the  modern  ways  of 
doing  things  by  up-to-date  methods.  To  be  sure,  there  are 
some  things  which  have  not  changed,  but  there  have  been 
radical  changes  along  the  lines  which  concern  and  affect  the 
financial  side  of  the  business. 

Some  Causes. — Most  of  these  changes  have  been  brought 
about  through  the  instruction  along  advanced  lines  given 
by  State  agricultural  colleges;  by  the  farmers'  institutes; 
in  bulletins  from  the  State  experiment  stations  and  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and,  as  a  corollary 
of  all  this,  the  improvement  of  farm  papers  and  magazines. 
The  United  States  Government  does  more  to  advance  the 
interests  of  agriculture  than  is  done  for  other  lines  of  edu- 
cation by  the  four  largest  universities  in  America.  Many 
legislative  changes  have  been  made  tending  toward  the 
improvement  of  the  rural  classes.  The  increase  in  American 
export  trade  has  done  much  to  advance  the  price  of  farm 
produce. 

As  prices  for  land  advance  and  competition  increases,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  adopt  the  most  modern  methods  of 
338 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING  339 

farming  in  order  that  the  profits  may  be  reaped  from  smaller 
areas.  The  invention  of  machinery  has  played  an  important 
part  in  the  introduction  of  new  methods. 

The  results  of  these  changes  are  only  just  beginning  to 
be  realized.  Many  may  think  that  fewer  people  will  be 
needed  upon  the  farms.  The  very  opposite  is  true.  But 
instead  of  the  farmer  of  the  future  being  an  uneducated  per- 
son, he  is  coming  to  be  well  prepared  for  his  new  calling. 

The  Best  Men  Needed. — The  farm  demands  men  who 
are  prepared  for  their  chosen  work.  Men  with  the  best 
brains  are  wanted  on  the  farm.  The  time  is  rapidly  drawing 
near  when  no  occupation  can  be  found  which  will  demand 
a  better  preparation  than  farming.  A  wide  knowledge  of 
science;  a  thorough  understanding  of  basic  principles  of 
plant  and  animal  life;  a  constant  acquaintance  with  the 
world's  market  quotations  and  how  to  interpret  them;  a 
clear  insight  into  reasons  underlying  all  farm  operations; 
a  close  attention  to  all  details  of  the  business;  a  steadiness 
in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  operations  of  the  farm; 
courage  to  act,  and  act  quickly,  at  the  proper  time;  good 
physical  strength  and  power  of  endurance; — these  are  some 
of  the  qualities  demanded  of  the  farmer  by  the  farm  of  to- 
morrow.   Already  we  hear  the  call  for  such  men. 

Some  Contrasts. — Take  a  ride  across  any  agricultural 
section  of  America  in  the  fall  and  you  will  find  many  of  the 
cornfields  remain  uncut.  Some  few  farmers  have  learned 
that  the  corn  stalks  contain  forty  per  cent  of  the  crop,  and 
are  careful  to  utilize  it. 

A  certain  man  was  seen  applying  barn-yard  manure  to 
recently  drained  swamp  land  when  already  the  place  was 
too  full  of  unrotted  vegetable  matter  to  produce  its  best 
crops;  his  neighbors  spread  manure  on  the  poorer  soils  of 
the  uplands. 

Many  dairymen  are  keeping  dairy  cows  which  do  not 
pay  more  than  five  dollars  each  over  the  cost  of  keeping  them 


340  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

each  year;  while  others  clear  fifty  dollars  or  more  a  year  from 
each  cow  above  the  cost  of  feed  and  labor. 

Farmer  *'A"  will  be  deluded  by  the  false  belief  that  the 
creamery  separators  will  kill  germs  of  tuberculosis  and  thus 
prevent  that  disease  from  spreading  from  one  herd  to  others 
in  the  neighborhood.  ''B"  will  investigate  the  matter,  and 
if  neighboring  cattle  are  thought  to  have  the  disease 
he  will  promptly  stop  taking  skim  milk  from  the  butter 
factory.  He  will  retain  his  own  herd's  pure  skim  milk  on  his 
place  and  sell  cream  only. 

System  in  Farming. — In  all  parts  of  the  country  farmers 
need  to  put  more  business  and  system  into  their  farming. 
Too  little  system  is  the  chief  cause  of  failure  in  many  in- 
stances. On  farms  that  are  successful  more  system  could  be 
introduced  with  profit.  No  other  calling  of  man  could  with- 
stand the  lack  of  system  which  is  often  found  in  farming. 

Mapping  the  Farm. — Begin  by  mapping  out  the  farm. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  employ  a  surveyor.  First  make  a  rough 
sketch  of  the  outline  of  the  fields  as  they  now  exist.  State 
the  area  of  each  field  or  division  as  nearly  as  possible.  With 
this  sketch  as  a  basis  to  work  from,  then  measure  the  real 
length  of  each  line  represented  on  the  chart.  A  man  and 
a  boy  with  a  tape  line  fifty  or  one  hundred  feet  long  will 
be  able  to  measure  all  the  lines  in  a  few  hours.  Write  the 
lengths  on  the  chart. 

Now  you  are  ready  make  a  corrected  map.  With  a  foot 
rule  or  yard  measure,  a  large  sheet  of  paper  and  a  pencil,  you 
can  make  a  map  with  true  proportions  very  easily.  Previous 
work  in  map  drawing  will  aid  in  getting  directions  of  lines. 
Of  course  a  scale  must  be  established,  say  one  inch  on  the  map 
to  ^ve  hundred  feet  on  the  land.  After  the  map  is  drawn 
it  will  be  easier  to  calculate  the  true  area  of  each  field. 

Planning  the  Crops. — On  each  division  or  field  we  should 
next  write  the  name  of  the  crop  or  crops  which  that  field 
produced  last  year,  as  "Oats  followed  by  clover."     Then 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING  341 

establish  the  rotation  that  each  field  is  to  follow  for  several 
years.  Several  rotations  of  crops  are  suggested  in  the  chapter 
on  Systems  of  Cropping.  Let  each  field  on  the  map  be 
marked  with  the  main  crops  it  is  to  grow  for  several  years, 
as  shown  in  the  school  map  (Fig.  97). 

Dairy  farms  will  be  planned  to  produce  plenty  of  green 
and  dry  forage,  as  well  as  some  root  crops,  grain,  and  corn. 
During  the  long  winter  evenings  a  farmer  and  his  family 
should  sketch  the  farm  and  plan  the  special  crops  for  the 
following  season  on  each  field. 

Exercise. — Mapping  School  Grounds. — Let  the  whole 
class,  or  those  who  have  the  most  time  to  spare  from  other 
work,  measure  the  school  grounds  and  make  maps  of  it  on 
large  paper.  Each  line  should  be  marked  with  the  length 
it  represents  on  the  ground.  The  scale  on  a  map  is  always 
given  for  a  map  in  a  geography.  Let  the  scale  for  this  map 
be  as  large  as  the  paper  will  accommodate.  Try  one  inch 
to  four  feet  for  a  very  small  place,  or  one  inch  to  100  feet 
for  a  large  place.  Figure  101  suggests  a  good  plan  for 
school  grounds  with  a  school  garden. 

Elements  of  Business  Success. — Farmers  should  keep 
records  and  accounts.  This  is  one  of  the  commonest  reasons 
for  the  great  success  of  certain  farmers  as  compared  with 
others  who  seem  to  farm  by  the  same  methods.  The  farmer 
who  keeps  clear  and  simple  accounts  always  knows  his 
business,  and  can  stop  the  losses  that  occur.  He  should  keep 
records  of  all  agreements  with  men  and  thus  avoid  many 
disputes  or  law  suits.  Records  regarding  crops  or  stock  will 
help  to  bring  about  the  best  financial  results. 

A  memorandimi  book  should  be  kept  in  which  are  written 
the  dates  of  the  first  killing  frosts  each  fall;  the  dates  of  the 
opening  of  fruit  buds  in  spring;  the  dates  of  bad  spring  freezes; 
the  birth  of  all  kinds  of  live  stock;  the  dates  when  each  field 
is  sown  and  harvested;  and  many  other  important  events  of 
the  year. 


342  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

Keeping  Farm  Accounts. — All  farm  accounts  should  be 
so  simple  as  to  require  very  little  time  in  keeping  them.  They 
should  also  be  easily  referred  to,  and  give  the  desired  infor- 
mation in  a  few  moments.  What  is  known  as  a  single  entry 
system  is  easy  to  understand  and  requires  little  time.  When 
a  calf  is  sold  for  cash  the  entry  is  made  on  that  date  in  the 
cash  account,  ''Calf  sold,  $10.00." 

The  "Column  System^'  is  still  more  simple,  but  requires 
a  special  ruling  for  the  purpose.  Any  book  with  a  number 
of  money  columns  will  be  easily  adapted  to  farm  purposes. 


■■.■■::.:■ - .t-.-       1 

'."fe 

■f 

' -^ 

■ 

Fig.  224. — The  column  system  of  keeping  farm  accoimts. 

The  pages  are  wide  and  the  names  of  accounts  are  written 
at  the  tops  of  the  narrow  columns.  The  left-hand  page  is 
for  the  sales  and  receipts,  and  the  right  for  expenses  or 
purchases.  The  photograph  of  the  open  page  is  shown  in 
Fig.  224.  Down  both  sides  the  dates  are  written  or  printed, 
one  line  being  used  for  each  day  of  the  month.  The  two 
pages  show  all  the  business  of  one  month.  Each  department 
of  the  business  is  given  an  item  column  and  a  money  column. 
A  similar  book  with  other  names  for  the  columns  should 
be  used  in  keeping  the  household  expenses.  The  columns 
could   be   headed:    Furnishings,    Wearing   Apparel,    Food, 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING  343 

Personal  Expenses,  Repairs,  Education  and  Church,  Reading, 
Sundries,  and  others. 

Exercise. — Using  the  Column  System, — Let  students 
rule  a  sheet  of  paper  for  the  column  system,  following  the 
plan  shown  in  Fig.  224.  Then  make  ten  or  more  appropriate 
entries,  as  practice  work.  Girls  in  the  class  may  rule  a  sheet 
for  a  household  page,  using  the  headings  suggested. 

Field  records  are  very  valuable  to  show  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing any  crop.  To  keep  a  cornfield  record,  a  page  of  a 
book,  having  two  money  columns  at  the  right  side,  is  used. 
Books  with  such  rulings  are  called  "journals"  and  are  for 
sale  by  stationers.  Write  in  the  record  of  the  manuring, 
plowing,  harrowing,  seeding,  planting,  cultivating,  and  har- 
vesting. The  amounts  for  such  items  are  estimated  at  so 
much  per  day  for  man  and  team,  and  are  written  in  the  first, 
or  left-hand,  money  coliunn.  Credit  records  are  written  on 
the  same  page  later  in  the  year.  The  items  may  include  green 
corn  fodder,  cured  fodder,  and  ripe  corn.  The  amounts  for 
these  will  go  into  the  right-hand  money  column.  At  the  end 
of  the  year  add  the  amounts  in  each  column;  the  difference 
will  show  the  profit  (or  loss)  from  the  field. 

Exercise. — Making  a  Field  Record. — A  page  of  paper 
should  be  ruled  by  each  student  hke  a  ''journal,''  wdth  two 
money  columns  at  the  right  and  a  date  column  at  the  left. 
Make  the  probable  entries  for  one  year  for  some  familiar 
crop.  Suitable  amounts  for  the  items  may  be  estimated 
after  talking  with  a  good  farmer. 

The  Accounts  to  Keep  on  any  farm  will  depend  upon  the 
special  fines  of  farming  that  are  followed.  Some  or  all  of 
the  following  accounts  would  be  included:  Cash,  grocery, 
labor,  horses,  dairy,  hogs,  poultry,  fruit,  potatoes,  and  others. 

The  Farmer  a  Salesman. — ^A  farmer  usually  has  produce 
of  some  kind  to  sell.  He  should  advertise  that  fact  in' a 
number  of  useful  ways : 

The  produce  itself  should  be  put  up  in  the  very  best  form 


344  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING 

so  as  to  catch  the  eye  of  the  consumer.  This  idea  is  used 
in  the  egg  case  and  the  fruit  case  shown  in  Figs.  205  and 
120,  A. 

The  farm  from  which  the  produce  comes  should  be  attrac- 
tive and  pleasing  in  appearance,  as  to  its  fields,  buildings, 
fences,  and  lawns.  This  also  adds  real  value  to  the  place 
itself. 

The  farmer,  his  team,  and  wagon  must  be  neat  and 
presentable  when  making  deliveries  of  goods.  These  help 
to  sell  future  products.  Dairymen  wear  white  uniforms. 
The  work  clothes  should  be  kept  at  home.  The  commercial 
traveling  salesman  does  not  wear  a  factory  suit. 

The  farm  should  have  an  attractive  name.  This  name 
should  be  printed  neatly  on  letterheads,  envelopes,  shipping 
cards;  and  on  cases,  crates,  and  baskets  in  which  produce 
is  sold. 

The  farm  name  should  be  made  prominent  on  articles 
exhibited  at  agricultural  fairs  or  in  advertisements  in  local 
newspapers. 

Bulletin  boards  bearing  the  name  of  the  farm,  and 
announcing  the  kinds  of  produce  for  sale,  should  be  placed 
at  the  nearest  approach  of  the  public  road. 

An  inventory  should  be  a  part  of  the  records  of  every 
farm.  It  is  made  up  of  two  lists:  (1)  the  things  the  farmer 
owns,  and  (2)  the  debts  or  liabilities  of  the  farmer.  The  list 
of  property  is  usually  made  in  the  winter,  about  January 
1st.  It  should  include  the  land  itself;  the  different  buildings; 
the  several  kinds  of  five  stock,  with  their  numbers,  breeds, 
and  ages;  the  machines;  the  hay,  grain,  apples,  potatoes,  and 
other  stored  products;  household  goods.  Making  the  inven- 
tory list  is  always  easier  after  the  first  year,  as  many  of  the 
articles  will  be  merely  transferred  to  the  new  lists  and  their 
values  corrected. 

Exercise. — Valiie  of  Property. — The  whole  class  working 
together  should  make  up  a  list  of  the  articles  which  probably 


THE  BUSINESS  OF  FARMING  345 

would  be  found  on  some  supposed  place  in  the  country.  Let 
the  complete  list  be  made  first,  and  the  values  may  be  added 
later.  Students  may  learn  the  approximate  values  of  dif- 
ferent articles  by  asking  older  people  at  home  or  elsewhere. 

Exercise. — Making  an  Inventory. — Let  each  pupil  make 
an  inventory  of  his  father ^s  property,  and  after  the  total 
value  of  the  property  has  been  estimated  let  him  find  the 
necessary  net  income  in  order  to  realize  5  per  cent  on  the 
investment.  Mciny  different  problems  may  be  based  on  this 
exercise. 

Value  of  the  Farm. — There  arc  many  things  to  consider 
when  determining  the  value  of  a  farm.  The  surface  and  drain- 
age, the  soil,  the  size  as  suited  to  the  type  of  farming,  the 
shapes  and  sizes  of  the  fenced  fields,  the  kind  of  improve- 
ments, the  neighbors  (whether  they  are  in  the  same  lines 
of  farming  or  not),  the  distance  to  good  markets,  and  the 
kind  of  roads.  Before  buying  a  farm  a  man  would  also 
think  of  the  climate,  source  of  drinking  water,  health- 
fulness,  churches,  schools,  mail  service,  telephone,  and 
taxes.  He  might  well  estimate  the  cost  of  securing  modern 
conveniences  in  the  home,  including  a  water-pressure  system 
and  house  drainage. 

References. — United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins:  62,  Marketing 
Farm  Produce;  242,  An  Example  of  Model  Farming;  270,  Modern  Con- 
veniences for  the  Farm  Home;  321,  The  Use  of  the  SpUt-log  Drag  on 
Earth  Roads;  347,  The  Repair  of  Farm  Equipment;  370,  Replanning  a 
Farm  for  Profit;  437,  A  System  of  Tenant  Farming  and  Its  Results;  454, 
A  Successful  New  York  Farm. 


PART  V. 
APPENDIX— REFERENCE  TABLES. 


TABLE  I. 

REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

The  school  library  should  be  supplied  with  a  set  of  all 
available  United  States  Farmers'  Bulletins  and  the  printed 
index  to  the  same;  a  set  of  the  State  Experiment  Station 
bulletins;  the  Yearbooks  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture;  the  circulars  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Entomology;  the  volumes  on  animal  diseases  issued  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  Get  as  many  of 
the  following  reference  books  as  the  hbraryfunds  will  warrant: 

Soils. 

Soils — C.  W.  Burkett,  Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York. 
Soils — S.  W.  Fletcher,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company,  New  York. 
Irrigation  and  Drainage — F.  H.  King,  MacMillan  Company,  New 
York. 

Farm  Crops. 

The  Cereals  in  America — Thos.  F.  Hunt,  Orange  Judd  Company, 
New  York. 

Forage  and  Fiber  Crops — Thos.  F.  Hunt,  Orange  Judd  Company, 
New  York. 

Forage  Crops — E.  B.  Voorhees,  MacMillan  Company,  New  York. 

Clovers — Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York. 

Forage  Crops — Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York. 

Soiling  Crops — Thns.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York. 

Alfalfa — Joseph  E.  Win^,  Breeders*  Gazette,  Chicago. 

Corn — Bowman  and  Crossley,  Pub.  by  Authors,  Ames,  Iowa. 
346 


REFERENCE  BOOKS  347 


HorticuUure. 

The  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing — L.  H.  Bailey,  MacMillan  Com- 
pany, New  York. 

The  Pruning  Book — L.  H.  Bailey,  MacMillan  Company,  New  York. 

Vegetable  Gardening — *S.  B.  Green,  Webb  Publishing  Company, 
St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Garden  Making — L.  H.  Bailey,  MacMillan  Company,  New  York. 

Bush  Fruits — F.  W.  Card,  MacMillan  Company,  New  York. 

American  Apple  Orchard — F.  A.  Waugh,  Orange  Judd  Company, 
New  York. 

Animal  Husbandry. 

Judging  Live  Stock — /.  A.  Craig,  Kenyon  Printing  Company,  Des 
Moines,  Iowa. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals — C.  S.  Plumb,  Ginn  &  Co., 
Boston. 

Breeds  of  Live  Stock — Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Company,  New 
York. 

Farm  Animals — Wilcox  and  Smith,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company, 
New  York. 

Feeds  and  Feeding — W.  A.  Henry,  Published  by  the  Author, 
Madison,  Wis. 

Progressive  Poultry  Culture — Brigham,  Torch  Press  Pub.  Co., 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa. 

Poultry  Craft — /.  H.  Robinson,  Farm-Poultry  Pub.  Co.,  Boston. 

Profitable  Stock  Feeding — Howard  R.  Smith,  Pub.  by  the  Author, 
Lincoln,  Neb. 

Dairying. 

Milk  and  Its  Products — H.  H.  Wing,  MacMillan  Company,  New 
York. 

The  Business  of  Dairying— C.  B.  Lane,  Orange  Judd  Company, 
New  York. 

First  Lessons  in  Dairying — Hubert  E.  Van  Norman,  Orange  Judd 
Company,  New  York. 

Bees  and  Insects. 

How  to  Keep  Bees — Anna  B.  Comstock,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Com- 
pany, New  York. 

Economic  Entomology — J.  B.  Smith,  Lippincott  Co.,  Philadelphia. 
Insect  Life — J.  H.  Comstock,  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  New  York. 


348  APPENDIX 

Cyclopedias. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture,  4  Vols. — L.  H.  Bailey,  Mac 
Millan  Company,  New  York. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  4  Vols. — L.  H.  Bailey,  Mac- 
Millan  Company,  New  York. 

Farmers*  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture — Wilcox  and  Smith,  Orange 
Judd  Company,  New  York. 

General. 

Among  Country  Schools — 0.  J.  Kern,  Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Agriculture,  3  Vols.  —  William  Brooks,  Home  Correspondence 
School,  Springfield,  Mass. 

Farmers'  Business  Handbook — /.  P.  Roberts,  MacMillan  Company, 
New  York. 

Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life — J.  G.  Ldpman,  MacMillan 
Company,  New  York. 

Physics  of  Agriculture — F.  H.  King,  Pub.  by  the  Author,  Madi- 
son, Wis. 

How  to  Choose  a  Farm — T.  F.  Hunt,  MacMillan  Co.,  New  York. 

Farm  Management — F.  W.  Card,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company, 
New  York. 

Our  Trees  :  How  to  Know  Them — Emerson  and  Weed,  J.  B.  Lippin- 
cott  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

TABLE  II. 
LIST  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 

The  list  of  agricultural  experiment  stations  follows.  Mail 
may  be  addressed  to  the  director  of  the  station  or  merely 
to  the  station,  as  for  instance — Agricultiu-al  Experiment 
Station,  Wooster,  Ohio. 

Write  to  the  State  agricultural  experiment  station  of 
your  State  for  the  bulletins,  and  for  information  regarding 
any  farm  subject:  feeds,  fertilizers,  sprays,  diseases,  insects, 
implements,  live  stock,  crops,  etc. 

Alabama —  Alaska — Sitka. 

College  Station:  Auburn.  Arizona — Tucson. 

Canebrake  Station:  Uniontown.  Arkansas — Fayetteville. 

Tuskegee  Station:  Tuskegee.  California — Berkeley. 


LIST  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 


349 


Colorado — Fort  Collins. 
Connecticut — 

State  Station:  New  Haven. 

Storrs  Station:  Storrs. 
Delaware — Newark. 
Florida — Gainesville. 
Georgia — Experiment. 
Hawaii — 

Federal  Station:  Honolulu. 

Sugar  Planters'  Station:  Hono- 
liUu. 
Idaho — Moscow. 
Illinois — Urbana. 
Indiana — Lafayette. 
Iowa — Ames. 
Kansas — Manhattan. 
Kentucky — Lexington. 
Louisiana — 

State  Station    Baton  Rouge. 

Sugar  Station    New  Orleans. 

North  La.  Station:  Calhoun. 
Maine — Orono. 
Maryland — College  Park. 
Massachusetts — Amherst. 
Michigan — East  Lansing. 
Minnesota — University  Farm,  St, 

Paul. 
Mississippi — Agricultural  College. 
Missouri — 

College  Station:  Columbia. 

Fruit  Station:  Mountain  Grove. 


Montana — Bozeman. 

Nebraska — Lincoln. 

Nevada — Reno. 

New  Hampshire — Durham. 

"New  Jersey — New  Brunswick. 

New  Mexico — Agricultural  College. 

New  York — 

State  Station:  Geneva. 

Cornell  Station:  Ithaca. 
North  Carolina — 

State  Station:  Raleigh. 

College  Station:   West  Raleigh. 
North   Dakota — Agricultural    Col- 

Uge. 
Ohio — Wooster. 
Oklah  oma — Stillwater. 
Oregon — Corvallis . 
Pennsylvania — State  College. 
Porto  Rico — Mayaguez. 
Rhode  Island — Kingston. 
South  Carolina — Clemson  College. 
South  Dakota — Brookings. 
Tennessee — Knoxville. 
Texas — College  Station. 
Utah — Logan. 
Vermont — Burlington. 
Virginia — Blacksburg. 
Washington — Pullman. 
West  Virginia — Morgantown. 
Wisconsin — Madison. 
Wyoming — Laramie. 


350  APPENDIX 


TABLE  III. 
INSECTICIDES  AND   FUNGICIDES. 

For  Biting  Insects — Poisons, 

1.  Arsenate  of  Lead — 

Arsenate  of  lead 2  to  3  pounds 

Water,  or  Bordeaux,  or  lime-sulfur 50  gallons 

Many  experiments  have  shown  that  well-made  arsenate 
of  lead  is  much  the  safest  of  all  available  arsenical  poisons. 
Arsenate  of  lead  is  to  be  found  on  the  market  both  as  a 
powder  and  as  a  putty-like  paste,  which  latter  must  be 
worked  free  in  water  before  it  is  added  to  the  lime-sulfur 
mixture  or  to  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  paste  form  of  the 
poison  is  largely  used  at  the  rate  of  2  or  3  pounds  to  each 
50  gallons  of  the  liquid  and  is  added  to  it  after  it  has  been  well 
worked  free  in  water.  As  there  are  numerous  brands  of 
arsenate  of  lead  upoji  the  market,  the  grower  should  be 
careful  to  purchase  from  rehable  firms. 

2.  Wet  Paris  Green — 

Paris  green '. . . .  J  pound 

Lime ^  pound 

Water 50  gallons 

If  the  above  amount  of  Paris  green  is  to  be  used  with  50 
gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture  the  half  pound  of  lime  would 
be  omitted. 

3.  Dry  Paris  Green — 

Paris  green 1  pound 

Powdered  lime 20  pounds 

For  Sucking  Insects 

4.  Kerosene  Emulsion — 

Strong  hard  soap,  shaved  fine i  pound 

Water 1  gallon 

Kerosene  or  crude  petroleum 2  gallons 


INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES  351 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water  by  boiling  and  immediately 
add  it  boiling  hot,  away  from  the  fire,  to  the  oil.  The  whole 
mixture  is  then  agitated  violently  while  hot.  After  five 
minutes'  agitation  the  emulsion  should  be  perfect,  and  the 
mixture  will  have  increased  from  one-third  to  one-half  in 
bulk  and  assume  the  consistency  of  cream.  Well  made,  the 
emulsion  will  keep  indefinitely  and  should  be  diluted  only 
as  wanted  for  use. 

How  to  Use  the  Emulsion. — During  the  growing  period 
of  summer,  for  most  plant  lice  and  other  soft-bodied  insects, 
dilute  the  emulsion  with  15  parts  of  water;  for  the  red  spider 
and  other  plant-mites,  the  same,  with  the  addition  of  1 
ounce  of  flowers  of  sulfur  to  the  gallon;  for  scale  insects,  the 
larger  plant-bugs,  and  larvse,  dilute  with  from  7  to  10  parts 
of  water.  Apply  with  spray  pump.  The  greatest  dilution 
noted  gives  4  per  cent  of  oil  and  the  lesser  dilutions  approxi- 
mately 6  and  8  per  cent. 

For  Weevils  in   Corn,   Beans,  Etc. 

5.  Bi=sulfide  of  Carbon. — One  teaspoonful  liquid  bi- 
sulfide of  carbon  to  each  two  cubic  feet  of  tightly  closed  air 
space.  The  fumes  settle  downward  in  the  space.  Keep  all 
flames  away  from  the  materials. 

6.  Bordeaux  Mixture. — Used  as  a  fungicide  to  prevent 
diseases  of  plants. 

Copper  sulfate  (bluestone) 5  pounds 

Unslaked  lime 5  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

This  is  called  the  5-5-50  formula  commonly  used  on 
apple  trees  in  spring  and  summer. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulfate  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  to  one 
gallon  of  water.  Slake  the  Hme  carefully  until  it  is  of  a 
creamy  consistency,  add  water  to  make  one  gallon  per  pound 
of  hme.  These  two  are  called  stock  solutions  and  may  be 
kept  covered  until  needed. 


352  APPENDIX 

To  make  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  dilute  each  as  much  as 
convenient  before  pouring  them  together.  Pour  the  two 
diluted  solutions  at  the  same  time  into  a  third  vessel.  Strain 
it  through  a  cloth  before  using  it  as  a  spray.  Paris  green  or 
arsenate  of  lead  may  be  mixed  with  this  to  prevent  diseases 
and  to  poison  insects  at  the  same  time,  as  on  potatoes,  toma- 
toes, and  fruit  trees. 

7.  Linie=Sulfur  (chiefly  to  kill  San  Jos6  scale  and  pre- 
vent disease). — 

Old  Formula  {without  salt)  — 

Powdered  flowers  of  sulfur 15  pounds 

Burned  lime 15  to  20  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

Wet  the  sulfur  and  slake  the  lime.  Add  these  to  10  gal- 
lons of  boiling  water.  Boil  for  40  to  60  minutes  or  until  well 
dissolved.  Then  water  is  added  to  make  50  gallons.  This  is 
for  winter  use  on  orchards,  and  is  used  while  warm. 

Concentrated  Lime-Sulfur — 

Powdered  sulfur 30  pounds 

Burned  lime 15  pounds 

Water 15  gallons 

Add  the  wet  sulfur  and  the  lime,  after  starting  it  to  slaking, 
to  15  gallons  of  boihng  water,  and  boil  until  dissolved.  This 
may  be  kept  in  a  closed  vessel  until  wanted.  A  layer  of  oil 
on  the  top  of  the  liquid  will  keep  away  the  air  sufficiently. 
This  is  diluted  with  about  9  times  its  volume  of  water  for 
winter  use  on  apple  trees.  The  rule  for  dilution  requires 
that  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  be  found.  Divide  the 
decimal  part  of  this  number  by  three  hundredths  ( .  03)  and 
the  quotient  will  tell  the  number  of  times  to  dilute  the  Uquid. 
For  example,  if  the  specific  gravity  equals  1 .  27,  divide  .  27 
by  .03,  giving  9.  Then  dilute  the  hquid  with  9  times  its 
volume  of  water  for  winter  use.  As  a  summer  spray  on 
apples  and  potato  vines  it  should  be  diluted  with  3  times  as 
much  water  as  for  winter  use. 


INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES  353 

The  boiling  of  lime-sulfur  is  done  in  an  open  kettle  with 
fire  beneath,  or  in  a  barrel  or  tank  with  steam  escaping  from 
a  pipe  in  the  bottom  of  the  liquid. 

Commercial  Lime-Sulfur. — A  number  of  commercial  prep- 
arations of  lime-sulfur  are  sold.  Each  is  supposed  to  be  of 
about  the  strength  given  in  the  above  formula  for  ''Concen- 
trated Lime-Sulfur."  The  strength  and  the  directions  for 
dilution  should  be  obtained  with  the  liquid.  As  a  general 
rule  it  is  diluted  with  9  times  its  volume  of  water  for  winter 
use. 

Self-Boiled  Lime-Sulfur — 

Fresh  burned  lime 8  pounds 

Powdered  sulfur 8  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

The  lime  should  be  placed  in  a  barrel  and  enough  water 
poured  on  to  almost  cover  it.  As  soon  as  the  lime  begins  to 
slake  the  sulfur  should  be  added,  after  first  running  it  through 
a  sieve  to  break  up  the  lumps,  if  any  are  present.  The  mix- 
ture should  be  constantly  stirred  and  more  water  (3  or  4 
gallons)  added  as  needed  to  form  at  first  a  thick  paste  and 
then  gradually  a  thin  paste.  The  lime  will  supply  enough 
heat  to  boil  the  mixture  several  minutes.  As  soon  as  the 
lime  is  well  slaked,  water  should  be  added  to  cool  the  mix- 
ture and  prevent  further  cooking.  It  is  then  ready  to  be 
strained  into  the  spray  tank,  diluted,  and  applied.  It  is 
used  in  the  above  strength,  8-8-50,  as  a  summer  spray  on 
peaches,  plums,  and  cherries. 


28 


354  APPENDIX 


TABLE  IV. 
QUANTITY  OF  SEED  PER  ACRE,  AND  LEGAL  WEIGHTS. 

Amount  Lbs.  per  bu. 

Name  of  seed.  per  acre.  usually. 

Alfalfa 30  lbs.  60 

Barley 8-10  pks.  48^ 

Blue-grass,  alone 20-25  lbs.  14 

Buckwheat 3-5  pks.  48' 

Clover,  alone 10-15  lbs.  60' 

Com,  shelled,  checkrow 6-8  qts.  60 

Corn,  for  ensilage 10  qts. 

Cotton,  Upland 4-  8  pks.  32* 

Cowpea 4-7  pks.  60 

Mangels 5-8  lbs. 

Millet 1-3  pks.  50^ 

Oats 2-3bu.  32^ 

Oats-and-Canada-peas 6  pks.  each 

Potato 6-18  bu.  60^ 

Rye 3-  8  pks.  56^ 

Timothy 10-20  lbs.  45^ 

Timothy-and-clover  mixture. 10-12  lbs.  each 

Vetch-and-grain  mixture 4-5  pks.  each 

Wheat 6-  9  pks.  60 

1  Pennsylvania  47,  varies  in  a  few  States  from  45  to  50. 

2  Varies  in  different  States  from  42  to  56. 
'  New  Jersey  64. 
*Varies28to33i. 

*  A  few  exceptions. 


PEDIGREE  OF  PURE  BRED  CATTLE 


355 


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356  APPENDIX 


TABLE   VI. 
RULES. 

Cubic  Measure  for    the  Farmer. 

231  cubic  inches  make  one  liquid  gallon. 

2,150.4  cubic  inches  make  one  bushel. 

The  standard  bushel  of  the  United  States  is  cylindrical, 
8  in.  deep  and  18J^  in.  diameter. 

13^  cubic  feet  are  allowed  for  one  bushel  of  shelled  corn 
or  grain. 

23^  cubic  feet  are  allowed  for  one  bushel  of  corn  on  the 
cob. 

A  crate  10x11x20  inches  inside  is  used  for  a  bushel  of 
onions,  potatoes,  or  other  vegetables. 

A  ton  of  hay  on  a  wagon  rack  measures  about  500  cubic 
feet. 

A  ton  of  newly  stored  hay  measures  7}^  feet  cube,  or 
about  422  cu.  ft. 

A  ton  of  hay  in  stack,  settled  30  days,  is  7  feet  cube,  or 
343  cu.  ft. 

After  hay  has  settled  several  months  it  measures  270 
cubic  feet  to  the  ton. 

Measuring  Land. 

One  acre  of  land  measures  160  square  rods,  or  4,840 
square  yards,  or  43,560  square  feet. 

When  the  length  of  a  field  is  known  in  rods,  the  width 
to  take  to  make  one  acre  is  found  when  the  given  length  is 
divided  into  160. 


FERTILIZER  FORMULAS  357 

TABLE   VII. 

FERTILIZER  FORMULAS. 

The  object  in  the  preparation  of  fertilizer  formulas  is 
to  show  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  materials  to  use.  Any  one 
formula  is  not  the  best  for  all  conditions;  these  vary  as  widely 
as  the  soils  and  different  methods  of  management. 

Field  Corn. 

Ground  Bone 250  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 500  lbs. 

Muriate  of  Potash ' 250  lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen,  1  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid 
(available),  7  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid  (total),  12  per 
cent;  Potash,  12.5  per  cent. 

Application,  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre  on  manured 
soils;  300  to  500  on  medium  soils  without  manure.  For 
forage  corn  or  ensilage,  the  nitrogen  should  be  increased. 

Oats. 

Nitrate  of  Soda 150  lbs. 

Tankage 200  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 600  lbs. 

Muriate  of  Potash 50  lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen,  3.5  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid 
(available),  8  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid  (total),  10  per  cent; 
Potash,  2.5  per  cent. 

Application  on  good  soils,  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre; 
300  to  500  pounds  per  acre  on  medium  soils  without  manure. 

Wheat. 

Dried  Blood 150  lbs. 

Tankage 100  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 700  lbs. 

Muriate  of  Potash 50  lbs. 


358  APPENDIX 

Composition. — ^Nitrogen,  2.5  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid 
(available),  9  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid  (total),  10  per  cent; 
Potash,  2 . 5  per  cent. 

Application  on  good  soils,  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 
On  medium  soils,  without  manure,  300  to  500  pounds  per 
acre. 

Early  Potatoes. 

Nitrate  of  Soda 100  lbs. 

SuKate  of  Ammonia 100  lbs. 

Tankage 100  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 500  lbs. 

Sulfate  or  Muriate  of  Potash 200  lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen,  4  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid 
(available),  6  per- cent;  Phosphoric  Acid  (total),  8  per  cent; 
Potash  (actual),  10  per  cent. 

Application  may  range  from  800  to  1200  pounds  per  acre. 

Sweet  Potatoes. 

Tankage 300  lbs. 

Dried  Blood 100  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 400  lbs. 

Muriate  of  Potash 200  lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen,  2.5  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid 
(available),  5.5  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid  (total),  9  per 
cent;  Potash,  10  per  cent. 

Application  per  acre,  from  500  to  800  pounds. 

Early  Tomatoes  and  Market  Garden  Crops. 

Nitrate  of  Soda 250  lbs. 

Ground  Bone 100  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 550  lbs. 

Muriate  of  Potash 100  lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen,  4  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid 
(available),  7  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid  (total),  9  per  cent; 
Potash,  5  per  cent. 

Application  per  acre,  800  pounds. 


FERTILIZER  FORMULAS  359 

Timothy  Hay^  Top  Dressing. 

Nitrate  of  Soda 500  lbs. 

Ground  Bone 200  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 200  lbs. 

Muriate  of  Potash 100  lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen,  8  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid 
(available),  3  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid  (total),  6.5  per  cent; 
Potash,  5  per  cent. 

Application,  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre. 

Fruits  and  Berries. 

Ground  Bone 250  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 450  lbs. 

Muriate  of  Potash 300  lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen,  1  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid 
(available),  5.5  per  cent;  Phosphoric  Acid  (total),  10.5  per 
cent;  Potash,  15  per  cent. 

For  medium  or  good  soils,  the  application  of  this  formula 
to  the  large  fruits  need  not  begin  until  the  trees  come  in 
bearing,  after  which  an  annual  appHcation  of  from  300  to 
500  pounds  per  acre  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  the  mineral 
elements.  For  berries,  this  formula  may  be  appUed  at  the 
rate  of  400  to  600  pounds  per  acre  previous  to  setting  the 
plants,  and  annually  thereafter. 

Fertilizer  Equivalents. — The  nitrogen  in  1  pound  nitrate 
of  soda  is  about  the  same  as  in  2)^  pounds  cottonseed  meal; 
1  pound  sulfate  of  ammonia  =  1^  pounds  nitrate  of  soda; 
1  pound  dried  blood  =  1|  pounds  cottonseed  meal;  1  pound 
nitrate  of  soda= IJ^  poimds  dried  blood. 


360 


APPENDIX 


TABLE   VIII. 

AVERAGE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDS  AND  THEIR 
FERTILITY.^ 


Name  of  feed 


Dry 
matter 
in 
100 
lbs. 


Digestible  parts 
in  100  lbs. 


Pro- 
tein 


Carbo- 

hy- 
urates 
(+fat 
X2.25) 


Fertility  in  1000  lbs. 


Nitro- 
gen 

(N) 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 
(P2O5) 


Potash 
(K2O) 


Alfalfa,  green 

Alfalfa,  hay 

Alsike  (in  bloom),  green. .. 

Beets,  sugar 

Brewers'  grains  (dried) 

Canada  pea  meal 

Cotton  seed  meal 

Corn  ensilage 

Corn  fodder,  green 

Cornmeal  {all) 

Corn  stalks  with  ears 

Com  stalks  without  ears... 

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Cow  peas,  green 

Crimson  clover,  hay 

Dried  beet  pulp 

Gluten  meal , 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  hay.., 
Linseed  meal  (old  process).. 

Malt  sprouts 

Mangels 

Oats 

Oat  forage,  in  bloom,  green. 

Oat  straw 

Peas  and  oats,  green 

Red  clover,  green 

Red  clover,  hay 

Red  top,  hay 

Ruta-bagas 

Rye 

Timothy,  green 

Timothy,  hay 

Wheat 

Wheat  bran  (winter) 

Wheat  middlings.. 


28.2 
93.6 
25.2 
13.5 
91.3 
89.5 
93.0 
26.4 
20.7 
85.0 
57.8 
59.5 
84.9 
16.4 
90.4 
91.6 
90.5 
86.0 
90.2 
90.5 
9.1 
89.6 
25.0 
90.8 
20.3 
29.2 
84.7 
91.1 
11.4 
91.3 
38.4 
86.8 
89.5 
88.5 
88.8 


3.6 

11.7 

2.6 

1.3 

20.0 

16.8 

37.6 

1.4 

1.0 

6.7 

2.5 

1.4 

4.4 

1.8 

10.5 

4.1 

29.7 

4.4 

30.2 

20.3 

1.0 

10.7 

1 


1 
1 
2 
7 
4 

1.0 
9.5 
1.5 
2.8 
8.8 
12.1 
13.0 


13.0 
43.1 
12.5 
10.0 
45.7 
53.3 
43.0 
15.7 
12.8 
72.2 
37.3 
32.7 
66.5 

9.1 
37.6 
65.1 
56.2 
41.8 
47 
49 

5 
58 
13 
41.3 
11.1 
16.4 
41.8 
49.1 

8.5 
72.1 
21.2 
45.3 
70.8 
43.4 
55.8 


7.7 

26.1 

6.2 

2.9 

40.0 

32.3 

72.5 

4.3 

2.9 

14.7 

7.2 

6.1 

13.6 

3.8 

24.3 

12.9 

54.8 

12.5 

54.2 

42.1 

2.2 

18.2 

2.6 

5.8 

3.8 

7.0 

19.7 

12.6 

1.9 

18.1 

5.0 

9.4 

19.0 

25.1 

27.0 


1.3 
6.1 
1.1 
0.8 

16.1 
8.2 

30.4 
1.1 
1.1 
6.3 
5.4 
3.8 
5.7 
1.3 
4.0 
2.2 
3.3 
4.0 

16.6 

17.4 
0.9 
7.8 


1 

3 

1 

1 

5 

3 

1 

8.6 

2.6 

3.3 

5.5 
26.9 
26.3 


5.6 

17.9 
2.0 
3.7 
2.0 
9.9 

15.8 
3.7 
3.9 
4.7 
8.9 

10.9 
4.7 
4. 

13 
3 
0. 

15, 

13. 

19.9 
3.8 
4.8 
3.8 

17.7 
5.0 
4.8 

18.7 

10.2 
4.9 
5.8 
7.6 

14.2 
8.7 

15.2 

15.3 


In  quarts  the  dry  feeds  to  make  a  pomid  would  be:  gluten  meal  0.8,  linseed 
meal  0.9,  cottonseed  meal,  pea  meal,  cornmeal  each  0.7,  wheat  0.5,  rye  0.6,  oats 
1,  wheat  middlings  1.3,  bran  2,  malt  sprouts  1.7,  brewers'  grains  1.7. 

1  Chiefly  adapted  from  W.  A.  Henry's  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


FEEDING  STANDARDS 


361 


TABLE  IX. 
FEEDING  STANDARDS. 

POUNDS    PER   DAY    PER   1000    POUNDS    LIVE    WEIGHT. 


Animal 


Horse,  at  light  work 

Horse,  at  medium  work 

Horse,  at  hard  work 

Cattle,  fattening,  first  period . . . 
Cattle,  fattening,  second  period, 
Cattle,  fattening,  third  period . . 
Milk  cows,  11  lbs.  milk  daily  .  . 
Milk  cows,  22  lbs.  milk  daily  .  . 

Sheep,  fine  wool 

Sheep,  fattening,  first  period .  .  . 
Sheep,  fattening,  second  period . 
Swine,  fattening,  first  period .  .  . 
Swine,  fattening,  second  period . 
Swine,  fattening,  third  period. . . 


Growing  Cattle- 
Breeds. 


-Dairy 


Age, 
months. 


Average  live  weight, 
per  head. 

2-  3 150  pounds 

3-6 300  pounds 

6-12 500  pounds 

12-18 700  pounds 

18-24 900  pounds 


11 

c 

•s 

1 

m 

^1 

i 

a 

20.0 

1.5 

10.4 

10.00 

24.0 

2.0 

12.3 

12.80 

26.0 

2.5 

15.1 

15.50 

30.0 

2.5 

16.1 

15.60 

30.0 

3.0 

16.0 

17.00 

26.0 

2.7 

16.5 

17.20 

25.0 

1.6 

10.7 

10.20 

29.0 

2.5 

14.1 

14.40 

23.0 

1.5 

12.7 

10.50 

30.0 

3.0 

16.1 

16.50 

28.0 

3.5 

15.8 

16.90 

36.0 

4.5 

26.5 

31.20 

32.0 

4.0 

25.1 

29.20 

25.0 

2.7 

19.9 

22.00 

23.0 

4.0 

17.0 

21.00 

24.0 

3.0 

15.0 

17.00 

27.0 

2.0 

13.6 

13.70 

26.0 

1.8 

13.4 

12.80 

26.0 

1.5 

12.6 

11.80 

•^.2 

^_>  OS 


7.0 
6.2 
6.0 
6.5 
5.4 
6.2 
6.7 
5.7 


4.5 
5.1 

6.8 
7.5 

8.5 


362 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  X. 
AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  FARM  MANURES. 


Farm  manures 


Cow  manure  (fresh) . . 
Horse  manure  (fresh) 
Sheep  manure  (fresh) 
Hog  manure  (fresh) . . . 
Hen  droppings  (fresh) 
Mixed  stable  manure . . 


Pounds  per  thousand 


3.4 
5.8 
8.3 
4.5 
16.3 
5.0 


O  O-'o 


1.6 
2.8 
2.3 
1.9 
15.4 
2.6 


4.0 
5.3 
6.7 
6.0 
8.5 
6.3 


S« 


$29.00 
28.00 
26.00 
38.00 


22 


o3  O 


$2.02 
2.21 
3.30 
3.29 
7.07 


^  Considering  nitrogen  at  15  cents,  phosphoric  acid  at  6  cents,  and  potash  at 
4  J  cents  per  pound. 


TABLE  XI. 

DISTANCES  APART  FOR  PLANTING  FRUIT. 

(If  planted  in  rows  each  way  the  distances  usually  range 
in  feet  about  as  given  here.) 


Fruit  trees. 


Small  fruits. 


Apples    30-40 

Apricots 15-20 

Cherries 15-25 

Oranges    25-30 

Peaches 15-20 

Pears 20-30 

Pears,  dwarf 10-15 

Plums 15-20 

Quinces 10-12 


Blackberries 4^-7 

Cranberries 1  -2 

Currants 4  -4^ 

Gooseberries 4  -4| 

Grapes 6  -12 

Raspberries,  black 3^-5 

Raspberries,  red      3|-4 

Strawberries,  hedge  row  . .  l|-3 
Strawberries,  matted  row  .  1  -4 


DISTANCES  APART  FOR  PLANTING  VEGETABLES  363 


TABLE   XIL 
USUAL  DISTANCES  APART  FOR  PLANTING 


VEGETABLES. 


Vegetables 


Rows, 

Distance  in 

feet  apart 

rows,  feet 

3-4 

1-2 

2-4 

1 

n-2 

drills 

li-2 

thin  drills 

2-2i 

n-2 

3 

3 

li-2 

drills 

2-2i 

li-2 

3-3i 

1-2 

3-4 

i-1 

4-6 

4-6 

3 

3 

1-2 

thin  drills 

H 

h 

li-2 

drills 

1-2 

drills 

1-3 

drills 

2i 

li 

2i-3 

1-U 

1-li 

drills 

4 

2-4 

li-2 

drills 

1-li 

drills 

6-8 

6-8 

3-4 

2 

li-2 

drUls 

3-4 

3-4 

Plants 
per  acre 


Asparagus 

Beans,  bush  and  pole 

Beet,  early 

Beet,  stock,  sugar. . . . 

Cabbage,  early 

Cabbage,  late 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Corn,  sweet 

Celery 

Cucumber  and  melons 

Egg  plant 

Lettuce,  curly 

Lettuce,  head 

Onion 

Parsley 

Peas 

Pepper 

Potato 

Radish 

Rhubarb 

Salsify 

Spinach 

Squash  and  pumpkin 

Sweet  potato 

Turnip 

Tomato 


8712-14520 
4840 

8712-14520 

10890-29040 

4840 

58080 

11616 
2722-5445 

5445-7260 
2722-4840 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  Preface,  v 
Aberdeen  Angus,  259,  260 
Accounts,  keeping,  342 

to  keep,  343 
Adults  of  insects,  203,  205,  206 
iEolian  soil,  49 

Agricultural  experiment  stations,  349 
Agriculture,  teaching  of,  1 
Air  for  germination,  17 

forming  soil,  43,  44 

in  soil,  17 
Airing  milk,  328 
Alfalfa  as  green  feed,  109 

a  soil  improver,  109 

a  chapter  on,  109 

curing  of,  112 

cutting,  111,  114 

for  soiling,  97 

inoculation  for,  110,  114 

in  rotation,  92 

loading,  112 

raking,  113 

roots  with  nodules.  111 

rules  for,  113 

seeding,  110,  114 

stacking,  113 
Alluvial  soil,  45,  48 
American  Merinos,  275 

saddle  horse,  246,  248 

trotter,  246,  247 
Ammonia,  sulfate  of,  82 
Analysis  of  feeds,  308 
Animal  production,  section  on,  237 

products,  section  on,  322 
Animals  as  soil  formers,  43,  48 

composition  of,  305 

improvement  of,  237 
Antennae  of  insects,  202 
Annual  defined,  20 

weeds,  29 
Appendages  of  insects,  202 
Appendix  tables,  346 
Apple  borer,  flat  head,  217 
round  head,  219 

budding,  35 
Apple  root  grafts,  34 

rust,  228,  229,  231 

scab,  227,  228 

scab  and  rust,  215 

spraying  for,  234,  235,  236 

scions,  33,  35 

stocks,  33 

varieties,  195 

worm,  214,  215 
Apples  picked  from  ladders,  200 

propagation  of,  33 

studying,  196 
Aquarium,  13,  14 
Arbor  Day  planting,  170 
Arithmetical  problems,  see  Problems 


Arsenate  of  lead,  236,  350 
Ashes  and  sour  soil,  76 

plant  food  in,  76 
Ayrshire  cattle,  266,  267 

Babcock  test,  333 

principles  of,  334,  335 
outfit,  335 
Bacon  type  of  swine,  279,  280,  281 
Bacteria  in  milk,  325 
Bailey,  Dr.  L.  H.,  quoted,  186 
Balance  in  Nature,  13 
Balanced  rations,  318 
Barley,  152 
Barn,  a  clean,  326,  327 

bad  construction  of,  326 
good  construction  of,  326 
manures,  value  of,  363 
Barns,  ventilation  of,  327,  328 
Barnyard  manure,  see  Manure 
Bean  weevil,  203 
Bee  colony,  301 
hives,  301,  303 
-keeping,  chapter  on,  299 
studies,  304 
structure,  302 
Bees  and  insects  carry  pollen,  18,  19 
life  of.  301 
winter  care  of,  304 
Beef  breeds,  257 

cattle,  fattening,  315 
cuts  of,  322,  323 
Beet  pulp,  314 
Belgian  horse,  244 
Beneficial  insects,  221 
Berkshire  swine,  279,  280 
Berries,  fertilizer  for,  359 
Biennial  defined,  20 

weeds,  29 
Birds  as  insect  eaters,  222 
Bi-sulfide  of  carbon,  213,  351 
Biting  insects,  202 

sprays  for,  350 
Black  Minorca  pair,  285 
Black  spot  of  peach,  225 
Blackberries,  198,  199 
Blake's,  Prof.  M.  A.,  list  of  peaches,  194 
Blossoms,  see  Flower 
Bone,  ground,  82 
Books,  reference,  58,  346 
Bordeaux  mixture,  215,  236,  350,  351 
Bottling  milk  and  cream,  329 
Boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  6 
Brahma  hen,  286 
Bran,  313 
Breed,  defined,  237 
Breeding,  laws  of,  237 
Breeds,  beef,  257 

keeping  pure,  237 
of  bees,  300 


365 


366 


INDEX 


Breeds  of  horses,  241 

sheep,  271,  272,  274 

swine,  279,  280,  282 
Brewers'  grains,  314 
Brooder  houses,  298 
Brown  rot  of  peach,  225,  226 
Brown  Swiss  cattle,  262,  267 
Bud  selection,  23 
Budding  apple  trees,  35 

peaches  and  plums,  36,  37,  38 
sticks,  35,  37 
Buds,  fruit,  192,  194 
Bulletins,  Farmers',  how  to  secure,  3,  346 

how  to  use,  3 

referred    to,    see    end   of   each 
chapter 
Bushel  measure,  356 
Business  of  farming,  338 

success,  elements  of,  341 
Buttermilk,  331,  332.  334,  337 
Butts  of  corn,  134 
Buying  feeds,  320 
By-products  and  mill  feeds,  313,  315 

Cab  horses,  244 

Calf  feeding,  315 

California,  school  gardening  in,  174 

Calves,  dairy,  263 

feed  for,  361 
Cambium  layer  of  wood,  34 
Capillary  moisture,  58,  59,  60,  61,  62 

experiment,  62 
Carbohydrates,  307 

and  fat  in  feeds,  360 
Carbon  bi-sulfide,  213,  351 

dioxide,  13,  14 

in  plants,  13,  14 
Carniolan  bees,  300 
Casein  of  milk,  323 
Catalo  hybrid  cattle,  260 
Catch  crops,  88,  89 
Caterpillar-hunting  beetle,  221 
Caterpillars,  206,  207 
Cattle,  chapter  on,  257 

feed  for,  361 

judging,  267,  268 

points  of,  shown,  267 

products,  chapter  on,  322 

types  of,  257 
Caucasian  bees,  300 
Cedar  apple,  229,  230 
Cellulose,  307 
Cereal  crops,  95 
Certified  milk,  330 
Changes  in  insects,  205 
Cheese-making,  333 
Chester  white  swine,  279,  280 
Cheviot  sheep,  272,  273,  274 
Chicken  houses,  288,  290 
location  of,  289 
inside  of,  289 
plan  for,  290 

varieties,  study  of,  287 
to  keep,  287 
Chickens,  varieties  of,  284-287 
Chinch  bug,  213 
Chlorophyl,  11,  12 
Cholera,  hog,  282 
Churning,  steps  in,  332 
Cicada  captured,  223 
Clayey  soil,  50,  51,  52,  56,  57   61 
Cleaning  seed,  22 


Cleveland  Bay  horses,  244 
Clothes  moth,  212 
Clover,  alsike,  104 

compared  with  standard,  318,  319 
crimson,  89,  104 
for  soiling,  97 
in  rotation,  90,  91 
methods  of  starting,  105 
nodules,  101,  102 
red,  104 

when  to  cut,  105 
white,  104 
Clydesdales,243 
Coach  horses  described,  244 
Coarse  wooled  sheep,  271 
Cob  of  corn,  137 
Cocoon,  205,  207 
Codling-moth,  214,  215 

spraying  for,  234,  235,  236 
Cold  frame,  176,  177,  178 
Colluvial  soil,  49 
Colony  of  bees,  301 
Column  system  of  accounts,  342,  343 
Commercial  fertilizers,  81 
Community  centre,  6 
Composition  of  animals,  305 
corn,  309 
feeds,  361 
fertilizers,  357,  359 
manures,  362 
milk,  323,  324,  325 
Composts  of  manure,  80,  81 
Concentrated  feeds,  310,  312,  313,  314 
Condensed  milk,  330 
Contrasts  in  farming,  339 
Cooling  milk,  328 
Copper  sulfate,  351 
Coppice  growth  of  trees,  171 
Corn  after  oats  and  peas,  94 
as  feed,  312 
butts,  134 
chapter  on,  131 
cob,  133 

composition  of,  309 
crop,  131 
culture,  140 
-drying  rack,  144 
fertilizer  for,  357 
finest  in  the  world,  137 
for  forage,  94 
for  soiling,  98,  99 
germs,  weak  and  healthy,  140 
grain,  133 

harvesting,  142,  143,  144 
in  rotation,  90,  91 
kernels,  132,  135 
planting,  141 
pollination  of,  19 
preparation  of  soil  for,  140 
proportion  of,  to  cob,  137 
root  system,  143 
score  card,  138 
silks,  19 

size  of  ears,  135,  136 
stalks  as  feed,  310 
storing,  142,  144,  146,  147 
testing,  138,  139 
tillage,  142 
tips,  134 

types  of,  131,  132,  133 
vitality  of,  134 
Correlation  of  subjects,  4 


INDEX 


367 


Cotswolds,  271,  272 
Cotton,  chapter  on,  115 

cultivation,  122 

diseases,  126 

fertilizers,  121 

fibers,  116,  118 

gin,  124,  125 

harvesting,  122 

improvement  of,  119 

importance  of,  115 

insects,  126-130 

market  grades  of,  124 

planting,  121 

problem,  123 

range  of,  119 

relatives  of,  117 

Sea  Island,  117 

selecting,  119 

soil,  120 

types,  117 

upland,  117 

uses,  115 
Cottonseed  meal,  314 
Cover  crop  for  orchards,  193 
Cow  peas,  90,  97,  102 
mixtures,  103 
Creaming,  methods  of,  331 
Cream,  ripening,  331 

separators,  332 

testing,  337 
Crop,  the  fruit,  200 
Cropping,  companion,    94,  178 

double,  94,  177 

succession,  93,  178 

systems  of,    86,  87 
Crops,  catch,  88,  89 

classification  of,  95 

cover,  in  orchard,  90 

planting,  340 

rotation  of,  86,  87,  176 

soiling,  97 
Cross-bred  animals,  239 
Crossing,  bad  effects  of,  239 
Cultivating,  effects  of,  62,  63 

peach  trees,  71 
Cultivation  of  potatoes,  156,  157 
sweet  potatoes,  158,  159 
Cultivators  illustrated,  63 
Culture  of  corn,  140 

orchards,  193,  195 
Curculio  of  plums  and  peaches,  215,  216 

injuries  of,  217 
Currant  worms,  206 
Currants,  198,  199 
Cutting  seed  potatoes,  155 
Cuttings,  kinds  of,  40,  41 
Cyprian  bees,  300 

Dairy  breeds,  263,  267 

calves,  263 

farm  rotations,  90 

products,  322 

records,  333,  334 
Delaine  Merinos,  275 
Dent  corn,  131,  132 
Depth  of  planting  seed,  175 
Devon  cattle,  261 
Digestibility,  influence  on,  316 

of  feeds,  360 
Diseases  of  man,  211 

plants,  chapter  on,  224 
Distances  for  planting  fruits,  362 


Distances  tor  planting  vegetables,  363 

trees,  166,  168 
Division  of  plants,  40 
Dorset  sheep,  272,  273,  274 
Draft  horses,  241,  244 
Drainage,  chapter  on,  65 

defects  of,  62,  66,  67 

for  alfalfa.  111,  114 

methods  of,  65 

warms  the  soil,  67 

where  needed,  67 
Drain  tiles,  66,  68,  69 
Drains,  reasons  for,  65 

ventilate  the  soil,  67 
Drift  soil,  48,  49 
Drill,  grain,  150 

Drinking  fountains,  291,  293,  297 
Dry  mashes  for  chickens,  293 

matter  shown,  305 
in  feeds,  360 
Dual-purpose  cattle,  260,  261,  262 

horses,  241 
Durham,  see  Shorthorn 
Duroc-Jersey  swine,  279,  280 
Dust  boxes  for  hens,  291 

mulch,  63,  64 

Ear-row  method,  23 
Egg  breeds,  284,  285 

packing,  296,  297 

problems,  298 

records.  285 

testing,  297 
Eggs,  preserving,  298 

weight  of,  296 

yolk  of,  295 
English  shire  horses,  243 
Ensilage,  144,  145,  311 
Essentials  in  feeds,  306 
Evergreens,  how  to  use,  186,  187 
Exercise,   frequent  in  all  chapters,  see 
special  topics 
referred  to,  5 
Experiment  stations,  list  of,  348 
Experiments  for  school  gardens,  182,  183, 

184 
Eyes  of  insects,  202 

Fallow,  bare,  88 
Fanning  grain,  22 
Farm  accounts,  342,  343 

crops,  chapter  on,  95 

forest  planting,  163,  164 

management,  section  on,  338 

mapping  the,  340 

-school,  plan  of,  176 

the  value  of,  345 
Farmer  a  salesman,  343 
Farmers'  bulletins,  see  Bulletins 
Farming,  best  men  needed  in,  339 

causes  for  changes  in,  338 

changes  in,  338 

contrasts,  339 

results  of  changes  in,  339 

special  and  general,  86 

system  in,  340 
Fat  in  feeds,  308 
Fats  in  milk,  323 
Feed,  equivalents  in  quarts,  360 

for  pigs,  281,  282 

related  to  purpose,  316 

succulent,  294,  295 


368 


INDEX 


Feeds,  troughs  for  poultry,  291,  292 
Feeds,  analysis  of,  308 

and  feeding,  chapter  on,  305 

buying,  320 

change  to  tissue,  309 

digestibility  table  of,  360 

essentials  in,  306 

fertility  in,  360 

list  of,  360 
Feeding  beef  cattle,  315 

for  winter  eggs,  293 

of  insects,  202 

plants,  81 

principles  of,  315 

standards,  317,  361 

systems  for  poultry,  292,  293 

young  animals,  317 
Fermented  milk,  331 
Fertility  in  feeds,  table  of,  360 
Fertilizer  equivalents,  359 
Fertihzer  formulas,  357,  359 

in  feeds,  320 
FertiUzers,  collection  of,  84 

commercial,  81-85 

for  pastures,  107 

for  special  crops,  357-359 

high  grade,  83,  84 

low  grade,  83,  84 

problems  on,  85 

value  of,  83 
Flies  carry  disease,  211 

life  of,  210,  211 

remedies  for,  211,  212 
Flight  of  insects,  202 
Flint  corn,  98,  99,  131 
Floats,  82 
Flowers,  imperfect,  18 

of  strawberry,  18 

parts  of,  19 

perfect,  17 

pollination  of,  18,  19 

purpose  of,  17 
Fiber  crops,  95 
Field  records,  343 
Fillers  in  orchards,  194 
Film  moisture  in  soils,  58,  59 
Fine  wooled  sheep,  271,  274,  275 
Food  value  of  milk,  323 
Forage  crops,  95,  96 
Forage  crops  for  midsummer,  99 
Forest  care  and  management,  171 

influences,  161,  162 

planting,  160,  161,  163,  164 

trees,  distances,  166,  168 
mixed  plantings,  167 
nurseries,  165 
propagation  of,  164 
shade,  165 
Forestry,  chapter  on,  160 
Formalin  for  grain,  232 

potatoes,  231 
Fountains,  drinking,  291,  293 
Free  water  in  soils,  58,  59,  61 
French  coach  horses,  244,  245 

Merinos,  275 
Frost  and  rainfall,  179 

vegetables  injured  by,  175 
Fruit  buds,  192,  194 

crop,  care  of,  200 

crops,  96 

fertilizer  for,  359 

planting,  distances  for,  362 


Fruit  production,  chapter  on,  188 

trees,  raising  of,  33 
Fruits,  small,  198 
Full-blood,  see  pure-bred 
Fungicides,  236,  350 

Gallon  measure,  357 
Galloway  cattle,  259 
Gang  plow,  72 
Garden  crops,  95 

fertilizer  for,  358 

planning,  173 

plants,  setting,  175 
Gardening,  chapter  on,  173 

landscape,  184 

ornamental,  184 

school,  180-184 

success  in,  173 
German  coach  horses,  245 

black  bees,  300 
General-purpose  chickens,  284,  286 

horses,  241 
Ginseng,  shelter  for,  165 
Glaciers  as  soil  formers,  47,  48 
Gluten  meal,  313 
Gooseberries,  198,  199 
Grades  defined,  238 

high,  239 
Grafting,  cleft,  38,  39 

wax,  making,  35 
Grain,  drill,  150 

heads  of,  153 

moth,  212,  213 

remedy  for,  213 

saniples  of,  153 

sifting  and  fanning,  22 

small,  148 

smut,  231,  232,  233 
Grapes,  198,  199 
Grass  seed,  good  and  poor,  26 
Grasses  for  soiling,  97 
Gravel,  57,  61 
Green  crops  as  manures,  73 

forage  crops,  310 

manure,  53 

benefits  of,  74 
for  potatoes,  155 
planning  for,  74 
plowing  under,  70 
use  of,  74 
Grit  boxes,  291 
Ground  beetle,  221 
Grub  of  beetle,  206 
Guard  cells,  12 
Guernseys,  264,  265 

Hackney  horses,  245 
Hampshire  sheep,  272,  273 
Hampshire  swine,  280 
Hardy  vegetables,  175 
Harrow,  spike-toothed,  64 
Harrowing,  effect  of,  62,  63 

pastures,  107 
Harvesting  corn,  142,  143,  144 

grain,  150,  151.  152 

potatoes,  156-159 

sweet  potatoes,  159 
Hay  as  feed,  310 

-caps  for  alfalfa,  112 

fertilizer  for,  360 

in  rotation,. 91 

measure  of,  356 


INDEX 


Hay-stacking  machine,  113 
Heading,  see  Pruning 
Hedge-row  system,  196,  197 
Henry,  W.  A.,  credit  given,  361 
Heredity,  law  of,  237 
Herefords,  258,  259,  267 
Hill-row  method,  196,  197 
Hives,  301,  303 
Hog  cholera,  282 
Holstein-Friesians,  264,  266 
Holstein,  pedigree  of,  355 
Home  plot  for  school  garden,  184 
Honey-bees,  221 

poisoning,  234 

-making,  301 
Hoppers  for  chickens,  291,  292 
Horses,  age  of,  251 

care  of,  249 

chapter  on,  240 

examining  in  barn,  249,  250 
Horses,  feed  for,  361 

inspecting,  249,  250 

judging,  252 

measurements  of,  251 

origin  of  in  America,  240 

points  of,  shown,  252 

pure  breeds  of,  241 

types  of,  241 

unsoundness  of,  251 
Horticultural  crops,  95 
Horticulture  defined,  173 
Hot-bed,  176,  177,  178,  181 

for  sweet  potatoes,  158 

plants  from,  159 
Houdon  chicks,  288 
House  fly,  310,  311 

for  chickens,  288 
pigs,  282 
Humus,  53,  56,  57,  61 
Husking  and  shredding  machines,  144 
Hygroscopic  moisture,  58,  59 

Improvement,  kinds  of,  70 

of  animals,  chapter  on,  237 
soils,  69 
Impurities  of  seeds,  24 
Incubator,  running  an,  295,  296 
Inoculation  of  soils,  110 
Insecticides,  202,  203,  236,  350 
Insects,  beneficial,  221 

breathing  of,  204 

cages  for,  207,  208 

changes  of,  205 

chapter  on,  202 

enemies,  207 

feeding  of,  202 

growth  of,  204,  205 

moulting  of,  204 

mounting  of,  208 

skeleton  of,  205 

specimens  of,  220 

structure  of,  202 
Inventory,  an,  344,  S45 
Iodine  test  for  starch,  13 
Irrigation  of  the  garden,  174 
Italian  bees,  300 

Jersey  cattle,  263,  265 
Journal  ruHng  for  records,  343 
Judging  corn,  rules  for,  132,  137 

cattle,  269,  270 

horses,  253.  255 


Judging  sheep,  277 
swine,  283 

Kaffir  for  soiling,  98,  100 
Keeping  farm  accounts,  342,  343 
Kernels  of  corn,  132,  135 
Kerosene  emulsion,  204,  350,  351 
Kinds  of  forest  trees,  164,  165,  171,  172 
King  system  of  ventilation,  327,  328 

Ladders  used  in  picking  fruit,  200 
Lady-beetle,  221,  222 
Lambs,  winter  or  hot-house,  174 
Land  drainage,  chapter  on,  65 

measuring,  356 
Landscape  gardening,  184 
Lard  type  of  swine,  279 
Larva  of  insects,  203,  205,  206 
Lattice  shade  for  nurseries,  165 
Laws  of  breeding,  237 
Layering,  tip,  mound,  vine,  39 
Leaf  curl  of  peach,  226,  228 

skin  of,  11 

structure,  10 
Lean  type  of  swine,  279,  280 
Leaves,  chlorophyl  in,  11 

moisture  from,  10,  11 

of  plants,  10 

openings  in,  11 

stomates  in,  11,  12 
Legal  milk,  330 

weights  of  grain,  355 
Leghorn  hen,  284 
Legumes  denned,  100,  101 

gather  nitrogen,  101 

learning,  101 
Leicester  sheep,  271 

Lens,  use  of,  in  examining  seeds,  25,  26 
Life,  duration  of,  20 

of  insects,  205 
Light  horses,  241,  245,  246 

see  Sunlight 
Lime  and  sour  soil,  76 

and  scab,  230 

benefits  of,  75 

for  pastures,  107 

in  soil,  53,  56,  57 

slacking,  75 

-sulfur,  215,  220,  225,  228,  234,  236 
forms  of,  352,  353 

water,  75 
Liming  for  alfalfa,  110,  114 
Lincoln  sheep,  272 
Linseed  meal,  314 
Little-peach  diseases,  227,  230 
Loam,  50,  52,  54,  56,  57,  61 
Loose  smut  of  oats,  232 
Loss  from  feeds,  309 

Maggot  of  fly,  216 

Malaria  mosquitoes,  208,  209 

Manure  and  scab,  220 

care  of,  78 

composition  of,  363 

composts,  80 

for  pastures,  107 

green,  53,  70,  73,  74 

heating  of,  77 

leaching  of,  77 

loss  in,  77 

spreading,  78,  79,  80 

using,  79 


370 


INDEX 


Manure,  value  of,  76,  77 
Mapping  the  farm,  340 

school  grounds,  341 
Market,  fruit  ready  for,  200 

-garden  crops,  95 

milk,  form  of,  329,  330 
Marl,  50 

Masses  of  trees  and  shrubs,  185,  186,  187 
Matted  row  system,  196,  197 
Measure,  cubic,  and  land,  356 

of  a  pound  of  feed,  360 
Meat  breeds  of  chickens,  284,  286 
Medium  wooled  sheep,  371,  372 
Men  needed  in  farming,  339 
Merino  sheep,  274,  275 
Metamorphosis,  see  Changes 
Middlings  of  wheat,  313 
Milk  as  food,  322 

bacteria  in,  325 

bad  flavor  in,  325 

composition  of,  323 

fats  in,  323 

minerals  in,  324 

pails,  327,  328 

pure,  326 

showing  difference  in,  324 

sugar  in,  324 

varies  naturally,  324 
Mill  feeds,  313 
Millets  for  soiling,  97 
Mineral  matter,  308 
in  milk,  324 
plants,  16 
Mixed  planting,  reasons  for,  167 
Modified  milk,  331 
Moisture  increasing  in  soil,  62 

saving  in  soil,  62,  63 

used  by  plants,  60 
Morgan  horse,  248 
Mosquitoes,  206,  207 

malaria,  208,  209 

yellow  fever,  209,  210 
Moth,  clothes,  212 

grain,  212,  213 
Mouldboards,  forms  of,  72 
Moulting  of  insects,  204 
Mouth  parts  of  insects,  202 
Movement  of  moisture,  60 
Mowing  pastures,  107,  108 
Muck,  53 
Mulch,  effect  of,  63 

dust,  63 
Mules,  classes  of,  246 
Mutations  defined,  238 

Native  stock,  239 

Nitrate  of  soda,  82,  84,  357,  359 

Nitrogen,  357,  359 

in  feeds,  360 

fertilizers,  81 

manures,  346 

Nodules  on  legumes,  101,  102 

studying,  111 
Nozzles  for  spraying,  235 
Nutrients,  310, 
Nutritive  ratios,  318 
Nymph  stage  of  insects,  207 

Oat  smut,  treatment,  232,  233 
Oats,  150,  151,  152 

and  grain  for  soiling,  99 
hay,  98 


Oats  and  grain  for  peas,  97,  98 
in  rotation,  93 

as  feed,  313 

fertilizers  for,  357 

in  rotation,  90,  91 

sprouted  for  poultry,  395 
Oil  meal,  314 

presence  of,  308 
Olericulture  defined,  173 
Ornamental  chickens,  284,  287 

gardening,  184,  185   . 

planting,  170  ^ 

Orchard  cover  crops,  90,  193 

culture,  193,  195 

site  and  soils,  188,  189 

trees,  pruning,  189,  190 
setting,  189 
when  to  plant,  189 
Osmosis  defined,  14 

use  of,  14 

with  egg,  15 

with  potato,  15 
Oxford  sheep,  272,  273 
Oxygen  in  plants,  13,  14 

and  air,  16,  17 

Palatability  of  feed,  319,  320 
Parasites  of  insects,  222,  223 
Paris  green,  236,  350 
Pasture,  in  rotation,  91 

plants,  106 

system,  99 
Pastures,  bad  conditions  in,  107 

how  to  keep,  107,  108 

rrmanent,  106 
culture,  193 
leaf  curl,  226,  228 
scab,  225 
tree  borer,  217 
varieties,  194,  195 
yellows,  225,  226,  229 
Peaches  injured  by  curculio,  217 
Pea  root  nodules,  102 
Peaty  soil,  50,  53,  57,  61 
Pedigree,  sample,  355 
Pedigrees,  239 
Percherons,  242 
Perennial  weeds,  30 
Perennials  defined,  20 

place  for,  in  garden,  174 
Perfect  strawberries,  198 
Permanent  pastures,  106 
Phosphate  rock,  82 
Phosphoric  acid,  357,  359 
in  feeds,  360 

fertilizers,  82,  83 
manures,  362 
Phosphorus,  study  of,  83 
Picking  and  packing  fruit,  200 
Pig  management,  280,  281 
Pistillate  strawberries,  198 
Plan  for  farm  school,  176 

school  grounds,  180 
Planning  crops,  340 
Plans  for  planting  shrubs,  186,  187 
Plant  diseases,  224,  225 

prevention  of,  225 
studjdng,  225 
-food  in  soils,  15,  56,  57 
improvement,  chapter  on,  22 
Planting  corn,  141" 


1 


INDEX 


371 


Planting  corn,  experiment,  141 

distances  for  fruits,  363 
vegetables,  363 

mixed,  for  trees,  167 

ornamentals,  directions  for,  187 

potatoes,  155,  156,  157,  158 

principles  of,  185 

time  of,  174 

trees,  160,  161,  170,  171 
methods  of,  163,  170 
need  of,  161,  163 
on  the  farm,  163 

vegetables,  175 
Plants  and  moisture,  10,  11 

as  soil  formers,  43,  46 

breathing  of,  12 

division  of,  40 

feeding  of,  81 

flowers  of,  8,  17 

get  food  from  air,  12 

for  pasture,  106 
Plants,  leaves  of,  8,  10 

mineral  matter  in,  10,  11,  14 

needs  of,  16 

parts  of,  8 

per  acre  for  vegetables,  364 

roots  of,  8 

stems  of,  8,  9 

water  used  by,  60 
Plowing,  depth  of,  62,  73 

fall,  72 

for  potatoes,  155 

objects  of,  70,  71 
Plows,  form  of,  71,  72 

gang,  72 
Plum  curculio,  215,  216 
Plymouth  Rock  hen,  286,  287  _ 
.Poisons  for  insects,  350 
Poland  China  swine,  279,  280 
Polled  Angus,  259 

cattle,  origin  of,  238 

Durhams,  258 
Pollen,  how  carried,  18 
Pollination,  cross,  19 

of  corn,  19 

self,  19 
Pony  breeds,  241 
Pore  spaces  in  soil,  60 
Potash,  357,  359 

in  feeds,  360 

fertilizers,  83 
manures,  362 

muriate  of,  83 

sulfate  of,  83 
Potato  beetle,  213,  214 

diggers,  156,  157 

harvesting,  156,  157,  158,  159 

scab,  230,  231 
Potatoes,  chapter  on,  154 

cultivation  of,  156,  159 

fertilizer  for,  359 

Irish,  154 

origin  and  types,  154 

planting,  155,  156 

treatment  for  scab,  233 

weights  and  yields,  157 
Poultry,  care  of,  294 

chapter  on,  283 

kinds  of,  283 

rations,  293 
Powdered  milk,  330 
Principles  of  planting,  185 


Principles  of  spraying,  235,  236 
Problems,  16 

arithmetical,  4 

on  eggs,  298 
feeds,  320 
fertilizers,  85 
Products  of  cattle,  listed,  322 
school  gardens,  184 
the  dairy,  322 
Propagation  of  forest  trees,  164,  165 

plants,  33 
Property,  value  of,  344 
Protein,  306 

in  feeds,  361 
Pruning  a  budded  tree,  36 

annual,  190 

care  in,  192 

choice  in,  191 

currants  and  gooseberries,  199 

grapes,  199 

high  and  low,  190 

illustrated,  190,  191,  192,  193 

instruments,  192,  194 

methods  of,  191,  192 

practice  in,  192 

principles  of,  189 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  199 

small  fruits,  198 

time  for,  192 

young  trees,  190 
Pupa  stage,  205 
Pure-breci  animals,  238 

milk,  difficulty  in  obtaining,  325 
how  to  get,  326 
Purity  of  corn,  133,  134 

Quantity  of  seeds  for  crops,  354 
Questions,    review,    see    end    of    each 
chapter 

Rainfall,  absorbing,  61 

and  frost,  179 
Rambouillet  sheep,  275 
Raspberries,  198,  199 
Rations,  balanced,  318 
Records  for  dairy  cows,  333,  334 

of  fields,  343 
Red  polled  cattle,  261,  262 
Reference  books,  346 

tables,  appendix,  346 
to  books,  58 
References  to  bulletins,  see  Bulletins 
Remedies  for  codling-moth,  215 
curculio,  216 
flies,  211 
grain  moth,  213 
mosquitoes,  209 
potato  scab,  230,  231 
scale,  220 
Reversion  defined,  238 
Review     questions,     see     end    of    each 

chapter 
Rings  of  wood,  169 
Ripened  milk  and  cream.  331 
Roof  garden,  183 
Rotation  courses,  92 

of  crops,  benefit  of,  88 
need  of,  88 
reasons  for,  86 
for  dairy  farms,  90 
Rotations,  a  few,  90 
quick,  91 


372 


INDEX 


Root  crops,  95,  311 

for  dairy  cows,  98 

grafting,  34,  35 

hairs,  8,  9 

system  of  corn,  143 
Roots,  effects  of  drainage  on,  66 

for  chickens,  291 

of  plants,  8 
Roughage,  310 
Rows  of  kernels  on  corn,  137 
Rules  for  alfalfa  growing,  129,  130 
corn  judging,  132,  137 
farmers,  356 
Rust  of  apple,  228,  229 
Rye,  152,  153 

Saddle  horse,  246,  248 
Salesman,  the  farmer  a,  343 
Sampling  milk  to  test,  335 
Sandy  soil,  50,  52,  56,  57,  61 
San  Jose  scale,  219,  220 
Scab  of  apples,  227,  228 
Scab,  potato,  230,  231 
Scale,  San  Jose,  219,  220 
Schedule  for  placing  agriculture,  4 
School  gardening,  180,  184 
equipment,  181 
experiments,  182,  183 
in  California,  174 
place  for,  181 
.  plots,  180,  184 
products  of,  184 
suggestions  for,  181,  182 
grounds  described,  186 
mapping  of,  341 
needs  of,  186 
plans  for,  180 
Scions  for  apples,  33,  35 

peaches,  and  plums,  37 
Score  card  for  cattle,  269,  270 
corn,  138 
horses,  253,  255 
Scrub,  see  Native  Stock 
Seed  analysis,  26 
cheap,  28 
collection,  28 
corn,  harvesting,  142 
storing,  142,  144 
depth  of  planting,  175 
for  crops,  quantity,  345 
good,  chapter  on,  22 
immature,  28 
impurities  in,  24,  25 
potatoes,  cutting,  155 
treating,  155,  231 
samples  of,  30 
selection,  22,  23 
storage,  29 
testing,  26,  27,  28 
what  to  buy,  28 
wheat,  150 
Seeding  alfalfa,  110,  114 
oats,  151 
pastures,  107 
Seeds,  forest  tree,  164,  "165,  166 
mounted,  31 
purpose  of,  20 
structure  of,  20 
study  of,  20 
Selecting  corn,  rules  for,  132,  137 
Separators,  hand,  332 
Shallow  tillage,  73 


Sheep,  care  of,  276 

chapter  on,  271 

feed  for,  362 

judging,  277 

to  kill  weeds,  108 

types  of,  271 
Shelter  belts,  162,  163,  164,  167 
Shire,  EngUsh,  243 
Shorthorns,  257,  258 
Shorts,  313 
Shropshire,  272,  273 
Shrubs,  masses  of,  185 
Sifting,  grain,  22 
Silage,  see  Ensilage 
Silk  worm,  221 
Silo  filling,  145,  312 
Silt,  50 

Site  for  orchards,  188 
Skim  milk,  334,  337 
Slips,  see  Cuttings 
Small  fruits,  to  grow,  189 

grains,  chapter  of,  148 
Soil,  agencies  in  forming,  43 

builders,  43 

clayey,  50,  51,  52,  57,  61 

defined,  42 

farm,  56 

for  barley,  152 
oats,  151 
potatoes,  155,  157 

improvement,  chapter  on,  69 

kinds  of,  chapter  on,  50 

loamy,  see  Loam 

moisture,  chapter  on,  58 

names  of,  57 

packing  of,  60 

perfect,  56 

plant-food  from,  15 

preparation  for  corn,  140 

rocky,  51 

sampling,  57,  58 

sandy,  50,  52,  57,  61 

texture  of,  55 

transported,  48,  49 

warmed  by  drainage,  67 

wind-blown,  43,  49 
Soils,  characteristics,  chapter  on,  50 

how  formed,  chapter  on,  42 

inoculation  of,  110 

water  holding  power,  60,  61 
in,  58,  61 
Soiling  crops,  96,  97,  311 

entire,  96 

for  the  dairv,  96 

partial,  96,  99 

system,  96 
Soluble  oil,  220 

Sorting  and  grading  fruit,  200,  201 
Souring  of  milk,  329,  331 
Southdown  sheep,  272,  273 
Soy  beans,  90,  97,  102 
Specimens,  preserving,  220,  221 
Sphinx  caterpillar,  223 
Sports  defined,  238 
Spray  mixtures,  351 

time  to,  227,  233,  234,  235 
Spraying,  224,  228,  233,  236 

orchards,  233,  235 

principles  of,  235 
Standardized  milk,  330 
Standards  of  feeding,  317,  362 
Starch,  307 


INDEX 


373 


Starch  in  plants,  13 

State  experiment  stations,  349 

Stems  of  plants,  9 

relation  of  light,  10 
sap  in,  10 
Steps  in  churning,  332 

cheese  making,  333 
Stock  feeding,  315 
Stocks  for  apples,  33 

peaches,  36,  37 
Stomates.  11,  12 
Storage  of  seeds,  29 

sweet  potatoes,  159 
Stored  grain,  treatment  of,  213 
Storing  corn,  142,  144,  146,  147 

vegetables,  178 
Stover,  corn,  144,  147 
Stratifying  peach  seeds,  37 
Straw  as  feed,  310 
Strawberries,  196,  197,  198 
flowers  of,  198 
methods  of  planting,  196 
varieties  of,  198 
Structure    and    physiology    of    plants, 

chapter  on,  8 
Subjects  in  school,  4,  5 
Subsoil  and  plow,  56 
Success,  elements  of,  341 

in  gardening,  173 
Succulent  feed,  294  , 

Sucking  insects,  202,  203 

sprays  for,  351 
Suffolk  Punch,  244 
Sugar  in  milk,  324 
plants,  13 
Sugars,  307,  308 
Suggestions  to  teachers,  2 
Sunlight  aids  plants,  12 

need  of,  12,  13 
Super  for  hives,  303 
Superphosphate,  83,  85 
Swarming  of  bees,  303 
Sweet  corn,  98,  99,  100 

potatoes,  157,  158,  159 
culture  of,  158,  159 
fertiUzer  for,  358 
harvesting,  159 
hot-bed,  158,  159 
plants,  157 
soil  for,  157 
storage,  159 
Swine,  chapter  on,  278 
feed  for,  361 

four  stages  in  life  of,  281 
mineral  for,  282 
types  of,  278 
Sjndan  bees,  300 
System  in  farming,  340 
^■stems  of  cropping,  chapter  on,  86 

Tables,  consult  Appendix,  346 

Tachinid  fly,  211 

Tamworth  swine,  280 

Tankage,  82 

Teachers,  suggestions  to,  2 

Temperature  and  souring.  328,  329 

in  soil  forming,  43,  44 
Temperatures,  16 
Tender  vegetables,  175 
Tester  for  ear  method,  139 
Testing  milk  and  cream,  333,  337 

results,  140 


Testing  seed  corn,  138 
Thinning  plants,  lessons  in,  183 
Thorax  of  insects,  202 
Thoroughbred,  238,  245,  247 
Tillage,  70,  73 

of  corn,  142 
Timber  crops,  96 
Time  to  prune,  192 
Tips  of  corn,  134 
Toads  destroy  insects,  223  ■ 
Tobacco,  shelter  for,  165 
Tomatoes,  fertilizer  for,  359 
Tongue  graft,  34 
Treatment  of  seed  potatoes,  231 
Tree  planting,  160,  161,  170 
Arbor  Day,  170 

seeds,  164,  165,  166 
Trees  influence  water  supply,  162,  163 

kinds  of,  164,  172 

raising  of,  33 

shape  of,  168 

top-working,  38 
Trotter,  American,  246,  247 
Tuber  crops,  95 
Type  of  corn,  133 
Types  of  cattle,  257 
horses,  241 
wheat,  148,  149 
Typhoid  flies,  211 

Underdrainage,  effects  of,  62 

principles  of,  67 
Unsoundness  in  horses,  251 

Value  of  manures,  362 
property,  344 
the  farm,  345 
Variation  among  animals,  238 

in  milk,  causes  of,  324 

laws  of,  238 
Varieties  of  chickens,  284,  287 

fruit,  294,  295 
Vegetable  gardening,  173,  179 

matter  in  soil,  53 
Vegetables,  hardy,  and  tender,  175 

planting  distances  for,  364 
Ventilation  by  drainage,  67 

of  barns,  327,  328 
Vetch,  97 

Vines  on  buildings,  186 
Vitality  of  seed  corn,  134 

Wasp  with  cicada,  223 

Water,  capillary,  58,  59,  60,  61,  62 

free  in  soils,  58,  59 

in  flesh,  305 
plants,  14 
soils,  58,  61 
Water  in  soil  formation,  44,  45,  46 

influenced  by  trees,  162,  163 
Wax  for  grafting,  35 
Waxing  cotton  for  grafting,  35 
Weathering  of  rocks,  44 
Weed  nuisance,  24 

seeds,  identifying,  26 
sprouting,  110,  114 
Weeds  classified,  29,  30 

collecting,  30 

defined,  29 

preventing,  73 
Weevils,  treatment  for,  351 
Weights  of  seeds,  354 


374 


INDEX 


Wet  mashes  for  chickens,  294 
Wheat,  148,  149,  150 

fertilizer  for,  357 

good  and  poor,  23 

heavy  seed,  150 

in  rotation,  90,  91 

planting,  149 

soil  for,  149 

types  of,  148,  149 
Whip  grafting.  34 
Wind-breaks,  162,  163,  164 

for  poultry,  289 
Wings  of  insects,  292 


Wood  lot,  160,  163,  171, 

mounted  samples,  169 

rings  of,  169 
Wool,  samples  of,  277 

yolk  of,  275 
Wrigglers  of  mosquitoes,  206,  208,  209 
Wyandotte  hen,  287 


Yellow  fever  mosquitoes,  209,  210 
Yellows  of  peach,  225,  226,  229 
Yorkshire,  large,  280,  281 
Young  animals,  feeding,  317 


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